From ba1f05a1afe8ae844bd1b087136caedef90f3a37 Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001 From: Thastertyn Date: Fri, 21 Mar 2025 18:27:54 +0100 Subject: [PATCH] Added data and parsed the 1000 most used words --- 1000_words.txt | 1000 + README.md | 22 + count.sh | 4 + data/all_cleaned_words.txt | 63307 +++++++++++++++++++++++++++++ data/all_words.txt | 63913 ++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++ data/book_metamorphosis.txt | 1914 + data/book_the_little_prince.txt | 1861 + data/gpl_2.txt | 116 + data/gpl_3.txt | 215 + data/kurzgesagt_aliens.txt | 70 + data/kurzgesagt_deep_life.txt | 82 + data/news_article_1.txt | 41 + data/news_article_2.txt | 31 + data/wiki_car.txt | 120 + data/wiki_dog.txt | 22 + scrape.sh | 9 - transform.sh | 35 + words.sh | 4 + words.txt | 996 - 19 files changed, 132757 insertions(+), 1005 deletions(-) create mode 100644 1000_words.txt create mode 100755 count.sh create mode 100644 data/all_cleaned_words.txt create mode 100644 data/all_words.txt create mode 100644 data/book_metamorphosis.txt 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+first +some +did +such +into +himself +than +program +will +about +like +time +very +up +even +their +now +only +can +room +were +license +them +biomass +life +we +do +other +when +work +out +which +me +more +could +then +been +what +an +no +my +any +there +prince +so +her +one +she +said +if +him +would +gregor +all +by +they +from +are +little +have +be +at +or +this +but +had +not +with +on +as +you +for +i +was +is +his +it +he +that +in +a +and +of +to +the \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/README.md b/README.md index 23fe161..6fe2722 100644 --- a/README.md +++ b/README.md @@ -1,2 +1,24 @@ # omega +## Sources +1. Generic news articles + - https://edition.cnn.com/2025/03/20/middleeast/ronen-bar-shin-bet-israel-vote-dismiss-intl-latam/index.html + - https://edition.cnn.com/2025/03/21/europe/conor-mcgregor-ireland-president-election-intl-hnk/index.html + +2. Wikipedia articles + - https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dog + - https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Car + +3. Scientific articles ([Kurzgesagt](https://www.youtube.com/@kurzgesagt/videos)) + - https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dCiMUWw1BBc&t=766s + - https://news.umich.edu/astronomers-find-surprising-ice-world-in-the-habitable-zone-with-jwst-data/ + - https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VD6xJq8NguY + - https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.1711842115 + +4. License text + - https://www.gnu.org/licenses/gpl-3.0.en.html + - https://www.gnu.org/licenses/old-licenses/gpl-2.0.en.html + +5. Books + - https://ia902902.us.archive.org/19/items/diaryofawimpykidbookseriesbyjeffkinney_202004/Diary%20of%20a%20wimpy%20kid%20book02%20rodrick%20rules.pdf + - https://drive.google.com/file/d/1b1Etdxb1cNU3PvDBQnYh0bCAAfssMi8b/view \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/count.sh b/count.sh new file mode 100755 index 0000000..da3717a --- /dev/null +++ b/count.sh @@ -0,0 +1,4 @@ +#!/bin/bash + + +grep -o "[[:alpha:]]\{1,\}" "$1" | tr '[:upper:]' '[:lower:]' | sort | uniq -c | sort -n diff --git a/data/all_cleaned_words.txt b/data/all_cleaned_words.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..3d7cf64 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/all_cleaned_words.txt @@ -0,0 +1,63307 @@ +everyone +is +permitted +to +copy +and +distribute +verbatim +copies +of +this +license +document +but +changing +it +is +not +allowed +preamble +the +licenses +for +most +software +are +designed +to +take +away +your +freedom +to +share +and +change +it +by +contrast +the +gnu +general +public +license +is +intended +to 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+move +there +was +nothing +but +a +flash +of +yellow +close +to +his +ankle +he +remained +motionless +for +an +instant +he +did +not +cry +out +he +fell +as +gently +as +a +tree +falls +there +was +not +even +any +sound +because +of +the +sand +chapter +the +narrator +s +afterthoughts +and +now +six +years +have +already +gone +by +i +have +never +yet +told +this +story +the +companions +who +met +me +on +my +return +were +well +content +to +see +me +alive +i +was +sad +but +i +told +them +i +am +tired +now +my +sorrow +is +comforted +a +little +that +is +to +say +not +entirely +but +i +know +that +he +did +go +back +to +his +planet +because +i +did +not +find +his +body +at +daybreak +it +was +not +such +a +heavy +body +and +at +night +i +love +to +listen +to +the +stars +it +is +like +five +hundred +million +little +bells +but +there +is +one +extraordinary +thing +when +i +drew +the +muzzle +for +the +little +prince +i +forgot +to +add +the +leather +strap +to +it +he +will +never +have +been +able +to +fasten +it +on +his +sheep +so +now +i +keep +wondering +what +is +happening +on +his +planet +perhaps +the +sheep +has +eaten +the +flower +at +one +time +i +say +to +myself +surely +not +the +little +prince +shuts +his +flower +under +her +glass +globe +every +night +and +he +watches +over +his +sheep +very +carefully +then +i +am +happy +and +there +is +sweetness +in +the +laughter +of +all +the +stars +but +at +another +time +i +say +to +myself +at +some +moment +or +other +one +is +absent +minded +and +that +is +enough +on +some +one +evening +he +forgot +the +glass +globe +or +the +sheep +got +out +without +making +any +noise +in +the +night +and +then +the +little +bells +are +changed +to +tears +here +then +is +a +great +mystery +for +you +who +also +love +the +little +prince +and +for +me +nothing +in +the +universe +can +be +the +same +if +somewhere +we +do +not +know +where +a +sheep +that +we +never +saw +has +yes +or +no +eaten +a +rose +look +up +at +the +sky +ask +yourselves +is +it +yes +or +no +has +the +sheep +eaten +the +flower +and +you +will +see +how +everything +changes +and +no +grown +up +will +ever +understand +that +this +is +a +matter +of +so +much +importance +this +is +to +me +the +loveliest +and +saddest +landscape +in +the +world +it +is +the +same +as +that +on +the +preceding +page +but +i +have +drawn +it +again +to +impress +it +on +your +memory +it +is +here +that +the +little +prince +appeared +on +earth +and +disappeared +look +at +it +carefully +so +that +you +will +be +sure +to +recognise +it +in +case +you +travel +some +day +to +the +african +desert +and +if +you +should +come +upon +this +spot +please +do +not +hurry +on +wait +for +a +time +exactly +under +the +star +then +if +a +little +man +appears +who +laughs +who +has +golden +hair +and +who +refuses +to +answer +questions +you +will +know +who +he +is +if +this +should +happen +please +comfort +me +send +me +word +that +he +has +come +back diff --git a/data/book_metamorphosis.txt b/data/book_metamorphosis.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..cd7e062 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/book_metamorphosis.txt @@ -0,0 +1,1914 @@ +One morning, when Gregor Samsa woke from troubled dreams, he found +himself transformed in his bed into a horrible vermin. He lay on +his armour-like back, and if he lifted his head a little he could +see his brown belly, slightly domed and divided by arches into stiff +sections. The bedding was hardly able to cover it and seemed ready +to slide off any moment. His many legs, pitifully thin compared +with the size of the rest of him, waved about helplessly as he +looked. +"What's happened to me?" he thought. It wasn't a dream. His room, +a proper human room although a little too small, lay peacefully +between its four familiar walls. A collection of textile samples +lay spread out on the table - Samsa was a travelling salesman - and +above it there hung a picture that he had recently cut out of an +illustrated magazine and housed in a nice, gilded frame. It showed +a lady fitted out with a fur hat and fur boa who sat upright, +raising a heavy fur muff that covered the whole of her lower arm +towards the viewer. +Gregor then turned to look out the window at the dull weather. +Drops of rain could be heard hitting the pane, which made him feel +quite sad. "How about if I sleep a little bit longer and forget all +this nonsense", he thought, but that was something he was unable to +3 +do because he was used to sleeping on his right, and in his present +state couldn't get into that position. However hard he threw +himself onto his right, he always rolled back to where he was. He +must have tried it a hundred times, shut his eyes so that he +wouldn't have to look at the floundering legs, and only stopped when +he began to feel a mild, dull pain there that he had never felt +before. +"Oh, God", he thought, "what a strenuous career it is that I've +chosen! Travelling day in and day out. Doing business like this +takes much more effort than doing your own business at home, and on +top of that there's the curse of travelling, worries about making +train connections, bad and irregular food, contact with different +people all the time so that you can never get to know anyone or +become friendly with them. It can all go to Hell!" He felt a +slight itch up on his belly; pushed himself slowly up on his back +towards the headboard so that he could lift his head better; found +where the itch was, and saw that it was covered with lots of little +white spots which he didn't know what to make of; and when he tried +to feel the place with one of his legs he drew it quickly back +because as soon as he touched it he was overcome by a cold shudder. +He slid back into his former position. "Getting up early all the +time", he thought, "it makes you stupid. You've got to get enough +sleep. Other travelling salesmen live a life of luxury. For +instance, whenever I go back to the guest house during the morning +to copy out the contract, these gentlemen are always still sitting +4 +there eating their breakfasts. I ought to just try that with my +boss; I'd get kicked out on the spot. But who knows, maybe that +would be the best thing for me. If I didn't have my parents to +think about I'd have given in my notice a long time ago, I'd have +gone up to the boss and told him just what I think, tell him +everything I would, let him know just what I feel. He'd fall right +off his desk! And it's a funny sort of business to be sitting up +there at your desk, talking down at your subordinates from up there, +especially when you have to go right up close because the boss is +hard of hearing. Well, there's still some hope; once I've got the +money together to pay off my parents' debt to him - another five or +six years I suppose - that's definitely what I'll do. That's when +I'll make the big change. First of all though, I've got to get up, +my train leaves at five." +And he looked over at the alarm clock, ticking on the chest of +drawers. "God in Heaven!" he thought. It was half past six and the +hands were quietly moving forwards, it was even later than half +past, more like quarter to seven. Had the alarm clock not rung? He +could see from the bed that it had been set for four o'clock as it +should have been; it certainly must have rung. Yes, but was it +possible to quietly sleep through that furniture-rattling noise? +True, he had not slept peacefully, but probably all the more deeply +because of that. What should he do now? The next train went at +seven; if he were to catch that he would have to rush like mad and +the collection of samples was still not packed, and he did not at +all feel particularly fresh and lively. And even if he did catch +5 +the train he would not avoid his boss's anger as the office +assistant would have been there to see the five o'clock train go, he +would have put in his report about Gregor's not being there a long +time ago. The office assistant was the boss's man, spineless, and +with no understanding. What about if he reported sick? But that +would be extremely strained and suspicious as in fifteen years of +service Gregor had never once yet been ill. His boss would +certainly come round with the doctor from the medical insurance +company, accuse his parents of having a lazy son, and accept the +doctor's recommendation not to make any claim as the doctor believed +that no-one was ever ill but that many were workshy. And what's +more, would he have been entirely wrong in this case? Gregor did in +fact, apart from excessive sleepiness after sleeping for so long, +feel completely well and even felt much hungrier than usual. +He was still hurriedly thinking all this through, unable to decide +to get out of the bed, when the clock struck quarter to seven. +There was a cautious knock at the door near his head. "Gregor", +somebody called - it was his mother - "it's quarter to seven. +Didn't you want to go somewhere?" That gentle voice! Gregor was +shocked when he heard his own voice answering, it could hardly be +recognised as the voice he had had before. As if from deep inside +him, there was a painful and uncontrollable squeaking mixed in with +it, the words could be made out at first but then there was a sort +of echo which made them unclear, leaving the hearer unsure whether +he had heard properly or not. Gregor had wanted to give a full +answer and explain everything, but in the circumstances contented +6 +himself with saying: "Yes, mother, yes, thank-you, I'm getting up +now." The change in Gregor's voice probably could not be noticed +outside through the wooden door, as his mother was satisfied with +this explanation and shuffled away. But this short conversation +made the other members of the family aware that Gregor, against +their expectations was still at home, and soon his father came +knocking at one of the side doors, gently, but with his fist. +"Gregor, Gregor", he called, "what's wrong?" And after a short +while he called again with a warning deepness in his voice: "Gregor! +Gregor!" At the other side door his sister came plaintively: +"Gregor? Aren't you well? Do you need anything?" Gregor answered to +both sides: "I'm ready, now", making an effort to remove all the +strangeness from his voice by enunciating very carefully and putting +long pauses between each, individual word. His father went back to +his breakfast, but his sister whispered: "Gregor, open the door, I +beg of you." Gregor, however, had no thought of opening the door, +and instead congratulated himself for his cautious habit, acquired +from his travelling, of locking all doors at night even when he was +at home. +The first thing he wanted to do was to get up in peace without being +disturbed, to get dressed, and most of all to have his breakfast. +Only then would he consider what to do next, as he was well aware +that he would not bring his thoughts to any sensible conclusions by +lying in bed. He remembered that he had often felt a slight pain in +bed, perhaps caused by lying awkwardly, but that had always turned +out to be pure imagination and he wondered how his imaginings would +7 +slowly resolve themselves today. He did not have the slightest +doubt that the change in his voice was nothing more than the first +sign of a serious cold, which was an occupational hazard for +travelling salesmen. +It was a simple matter to throw off the covers; he only had to blow +himself up a little and they fell off by themselves. But it became +difficult after that, especially as he was so exceptionally broad. +He would have used his arms and his hands to push himself up; but +instead of them he only had all those little legs continuously +moving in different directions, and which he was moreover unable to +control. If he wanted to bend one of them, then that was the first +one that would stretch itself out; and if he finally managed to do +what he wanted with that leg, all the others seemed to be set free +and would move about painfully. "This is something that can't be +done in bed", Gregor said to himself, "so don't keep trying to do +it". +The first thing he wanted to do was get the lower part of his body +out of the bed, but he had never seen this lower part, and could not +imagine what it looked like; it turned out to be too hard to move; +it went so slowly; and finally, almost in a frenzy, when he +carelessly shoved himself forwards with all the force he could +gather, he chose the wrong direction, hit hard against the lower +bedpost, and learned from the burning pain he felt that the lower +part of his body might well, at present, be the most sensitive. +8 +So then he tried to get the top part of his body out of the bed +first, carefully turning his head to the side. This he managed +quite easily, and despite its breadth and its weight, the bulk of +his body eventually followed slowly in the direction of the head. +But when he had at last got his head out of the bed and into the +fresh air it occurred to him that if he let himself fall it would be +a miracle if his head were not injured, so he became afraid to carry +on pushing himself forward the same way. And he could not knock +himself out now at any price; better to stay in bed than lose +consciousness. +It took just as much effort to get back to where he had been +earlier, but when he lay there sighing, and was once more watching +his legs as they struggled against each other even harder than +before, if that was possible, he could think of no way of bringing +peace and order to this chaos. He told himself once more that it +was not possible for him to stay in bed and that the most sensible +thing to do would be to get free of it in whatever way he could at +whatever sacrifice. At the same time, though, he did not forget to +remind himself that calm consideration was much better than rushing +to desperate conclusions. At times like this he would direct his +eyes to the window and look out as clearly as he could, but +unfortunately, even the other side of the narrow street was +enveloped in morning fog and the view had little confidence or cheer +to offer him. "Seven o'clock, already", he said to himself when the +clock struck again, "seven o'clock, and there's still a fog like +this." And he lay there quietly a while longer, breathing lightly +9 +as if he perhaps expected the total stillness to bring things back +to their real and natural state. +But then he said to himself: "Before it strikes quarter past seven +I'll definitely have to have got properly out of bed. And by then +somebody will have come round from work to ask what's happened to me +as well, as they open up at work before seven o'clock." And so he +set himself to the task of swinging the entire length of his body +out of the bed all at the same time. If he succeeded in falling out +of bed in this way and kept his head raised as he did so he could +probably avoid injuring it. His back seemed to be quite hard, and +probably nothing would happen to it falling onto the carpet. His +main concern was for the loud noise he was bound to make, and which +even through all the doors would probably raise concern if not +alarm. But it was something that had to be risked. +When Gregor was already sticking half way out of the bed - the new +method was more of a game than an effort, all he had to do was rock +back and forth - it occurred to him how simple everything would be +if somebody came to help him. Two strong people - he had his father +and the maid in mind - would have been more than enough; they would +only have to push their arms under the dome of his back, peel him +away from the bed, bend down with the load and then be patient and +careful as he swang over onto the floor, where, hopefully, the +little legs would find a use. Should he really call for help +though, even apart from the fact that all the doors were locked? +Despite all the difficulty he was in, he could not suppress a smile +10 +at this thought. +After a while he had already moved so far across that it would have +been hard for him to keep his balance if he rocked too hard. The +time was now ten past seven and he would have to make a final +decision very soon. Then there was a ring at the door of the flat. +"That'll be someone from work", he said to himself, and froze very +still, although his little legs only became all the more lively as +they danced around. For a moment everything remained quiet. +"They're not opening the door", Gregor said to himself, caught in +some nonsensical hope. But then of course, the maid's firm steps +went to the door as ever and opened it. Gregor only needed to hear +the visitor's first words of greeting and he knew who it was - the +chief clerk himself. Why did Gregor have to be the only one +condemned to work for a company where they immediately became highly +suspicious at the slightest shortcoming? Were all employees, every +one of them, louts, was there not one of them who was faithful and +devoted who would go so mad with pangs of conscience that he +couldn't get out of bed if he didn't spend at least a couple of +hours in the morning on company business? Was it really not enough +to let one of the trainees make enquiries - assuming enquiries were +even necessary - did the chief clerk have to come himself, and did +they have to show the whole, innocent family that this was so +suspicious that only the chief clerk could be trusted to have the +wisdom to investigate it? And more because these thoughts had made +him upset than through any proper decision, he swang himself with +all his force out of the bed. There was a loud thump, but it wasn't +11 +really a loud noise. His fall was softened a little by the carpet, +and Gregor's back was also more elastic than he had thought, which +made the sound muffled and not too noticeable. He had not held his +head carefully enough, though, and hit it as he fell; annoyed and in +pain, he turned it and rubbed it against the carpet. +"Something's fallen down in there", said the chief clerk in the room +on the left. Gregor tried to imagine whether something of the sort +that had happened to him today could ever happen to the chief clerk +too; you had to concede that it was possible. But as if in gruff +reply to this question, the chief clerk's firm footsteps in his +highly polished boots could now be heard in the adjoining room. +From the room on his right, Gregor's sister whispered to him to let +him know: "Gregor, the chief clerk is here." "Yes, I know", said +Gregor to himself; but without daring to raise his voice loud enough +for his sister to hear him. +"Gregor", said his father now from the room to his left, "the chief +clerk has come round and wants to know why you didn't leave on the +early train. We don't know what to say to him. And anyway, he +wants to speak to you personally. So please open up this door. I'm +sure he'll be good enough to forgive the untidiness of your room." +Then the chief clerk called "Good morning, Mr. Samsa". "He isn't +well", said his mother to the chief clerk, while his father +continued to speak through the door. "He isn't well, please believe +me. Why else would Gregor have missed a train! The lad only ever +thinks about the business. It nearly makes me cross the way he +12 +never goes out in the evenings; he's been in town for a week now but +stayed home every evening. He sits with us in the kitchen and just +reads the paper or studies train timetables. His idea of relaxation +is working with his fretsaw. He's made a little frame, for +instance, it only took him two or three evenings, you'll be amazed +how nice it is; it's hanging up in his room; you'll see it as soon +as Gregor opens the door. Anyway, I'm glad you're here; we wouldn't +have been able to get Gregor to open the door by ourselves; he's so +stubborn; and I'm sure he isn't well, he said this morning that he +is, but he isn't." "I'll be there in a moment", said Gregor slowly +and thoughtfully, but without moving so that he would not miss any +word of the conversation. "Well I can't think of any other way of +explaining it, Mrs. Samsa", said the chief clerk, "I hope it's +nothing serious. But on the other hand, I must say that if we +people in commerce ever become slightly unwell then, fortunately or +unfortunately as you like, we simply have to overcome it because of +business considerations." "Can the chief clerk come in to see you +now then?", asked his father impatiently, knocking at the door +again. "No", said Gregor. In the room on his right there followed +a painful silence; in the room on his left his sister began to cry. +So why did his sister not go and join the others? She had probably +only just got up and had not even begun to get dressed. And why was +she crying? Was it because he had not got up, and had not let the +chief clerk in, because he was in danger of losing his job and if +that happened his boss would once more pursue their parents with the +same demands as before? There was no need to worry about things like +13 +that yet. Gregor was still there and had not the slightest +intention of abandoning his family. For the time being he just lay +there on the carpet, and no-one who knew the condition he was in +would seriously have expected him to let the chief clerk in. It was +only a minor discourtesy, and a suitable excuse could easily be +found for it later on, it was not something for which Gregor could +be sacked on the spot. And it seemed to Gregor much more sensible +to leave him now in peace instead of disturbing him with talking at +him and crying. But the others didn't know what was happening, they +were worried, that would excuse their behaviour. +The chief clerk now raised his voice, "Mr. Samsa", he called to him, +"what is wrong? You barricade yourself in your room, give us no more +than yes or no for an answer, you are causing serious and +unnecessary concern to your parents and you fail - and I mention +this just by the way - you fail to carry out your business duties in +a way that is quite unheard of. I'm speaking here on behalf of your +parents and of your employer, and really must request a clear and +immediate explanation. I am astonished, quite astonished. I +thought I knew you as a calm and sensible person, and now you +suddenly seem to be showing off with peculiar whims. This morning, +your employer did suggest a possible reason for your failure to +appear, it's true - it had to do with the money that was recently +entrusted to you - but I came near to giving him my word of honour +that that could not be the right explanation. But now that I see +your incomprehensible stubbornness I no longer feel any wish +whatsoever to intercede on your behalf. And nor is your position +14 +all that secure. I had originally intended to say all this to you +in private, but since you cause me to waste my time here for no good +reason I don't see why your parents should not also learn of it. +Your turnover has been very unsatisfactory of late; I grant you that +it's not the time of year to do especially good business, we +recognise that; but there simply is no time of year to do no +business at all, Mr. Samsa, we cannot allow there to be." +"But Sir", called Gregor, beside himself and forgetting all else in +the excitement, "I'll open up immediately, just a moment. I'm +slightly unwell, an attack of dizziness, I haven't been able to get +up. I'm still in bed now. I'm quite fresh again now, though. I'm +just getting out of bed. Just a moment. Be patient! It's not quite +as easy as I'd thought. I'm quite alright now, though. It's +shocking, what can suddenly happen to a person! I was quite alright +last night, my parents know about it, perhaps better than me, I had +a small symptom of it last night already. They must have noticed +it. I don't know why I didn't let you know at work! But you always +think you can get over an illness without staying at home. Please, +don't make my parents suffer! There's no basis for any of the +accusations you're making; nobody's ever said a word to me about any +of these things. Maybe you haven't read the latest contracts I sent +in. I'll set off with the eight o'clock train, as well, these few +hours of rest have given me strength. You don't need to wait, sir; +I'll be in the office soon after you, and please be so good as to +tell that to the boss and recommend me to him!" +15 +And while Gregor gushed out these words, hardly knowing what he was +saying, he made his way over to the chest of drawers - this was +easily done, probably because of the practise he had already had in +bed - where he now tried to get himself upright. He really did want +to open the door, really did want to let them see him and to speak +with the chief clerk; the others were being so insistent, and he was +curious to learn what they would say when they caught sight of him. +If they were shocked then it would no longer be Gregor's +responsibility and he could rest. If, however, they took everything +calmly he would still have no reason to be upset, and if he hurried +he really could be at the station for eight o'clock. The first few +times he tried to climb up on the smooth chest of drawers he just +slid down again, but he finally gave himself one last swing and +stood there upright; the lower part of his body was in serious pain +but he no longer gave any attention to it. Now he let himself fall +against the back of a nearby chair and held tightly to the edges of +it with his little legs. By now he had also calmed down, and kept +quiet so that he could listen to what the chief clerk was saying. +"Did you understand a word of all that?" the chief clerk asked his +parents, "surely he's not trying to make fools of us". "Oh, God!" +called his mother, who was already in tears, "he could be seriously +ill and we're making him suffer. Grete! Grete!" she then cried. +"Mother?" his sister called from the other side. They communicated +across Gregor's room. "You'll have to go for the doctor straight +away. Gregor is ill. Quick, get the doctor. Did you hear the way +Gregor spoke just now?" "That was the voice of an animal", said the +16 +chief clerk, with a calmness that was in contrast with his mother's +screams. "Anna! Anna!" his father called into the kitchen through +the entrance hall, clapping his hands, "get a locksmith here, now!" +And the two girls, their skirts swishing, immediately ran out +through the hall, wrenching open the front door of the flat as they +went. How had his sister managed to get dressed so quickly? There +was no sound of the door banging shut again; they must have left it +open; people often do in homes where something awful has happened. +Gregor, in contrast, had become much calmer. So they couldn't +understand his words any more, although they seemed clear enough to +him, clearer than before - perhaps his ears had become used to the +sound. They had realised, though, that there was something wrong +with him, and were ready to help. The first response to his +situation had been confident and wise, and that made him feel +better. He felt that he had been drawn back in among people, and +from the doctor and the locksmith he expected great and surprising +achievements - although he did not really distinguish one from the +other. Whatever was said next would be crucial, so, in order to +make his voice as clear as possible, he coughed a little, but taking +care to do this not too loudly as even this might well sound +different from the way that a human coughs and he was no longer sure +he could judge this for himself. Meanwhile, it had become very +quiet in the next room. Perhaps his parents were sat at the table +whispering with the chief clerk, or perhaps they were all pressed +against the door and listening. +17 +Gregor slowly pushed his way over to the door with the chair. Once +there he let go of it and threw himself onto the door, holding +himself upright against it using the adhesive on the tips of his +legs. He rested there a little while to recover from the effort +involved and then set himself to the task of turning the key in the +lock with his mouth. He seemed, unfortunately, to have no proper +teeth - how was he, then, to grasp the key? - but the lack of teeth +was, of course, made up for with a very strong jaw; using the jaw, +he really was able to start the key turning, ignoring the fact that +he must have been causing some kind of damage as a brown fluid came +from his mouth, flowed over the key and dripped onto the floor. +"Listen", said the chief clerk in the next room, "he's turning the +key." Gregor was greatly encouraged by this; but they all should +have been calling to him, his father and his mother too: "Well done, +Gregor", they should have cried, "keep at it, keep hold of the +lock!" And with the idea that they were all excitedly following his +efforts, he bit on the key with all his strength, paying no +attention to the pain he was causing himself. As the key turned +round he turned around the lock with it, only holding himself +upright with his mouth, and hung onto the key or pushed it down +again with the whole weight of his body as needed. The clear sound +of the lock as it snapped back was Gregor's sign that he could break +his concentration, and as he regained his breath he said to himself: +"So, I didn't need the locksmith after all". Then he lay his head on +the handle of the door to open it completely. +Because he had to open the door in this way, it was already wide +18 +open before he could be seen. He had first to slowly turn himself +around one of the double doors, and he had to do it very carefully +if he did not want to fall flat on his back before entering the +room. He was still occupied with this difficult movement, unable to +pay attention to anything else, when he heard the chief clerk +exclaim a loud "Oh!", which sounded like the soughing of the wind. +Now he also saw him - he was the nearest to the door - his hand +pressed against his open mouth and slowly retreating as if driven by +a steady and invisible force. Gregor's mother, her hair still +dishevelled from bed despite the chief clerk's being there, looked +at his father. Then she unfolded her arms, took two steps forward +towards Gregor and sank down onto the floor into her skirts that +spread themselves out around her as her head disappeared down onto +her breast. His father looked hostile, and clenched his fists as if +wanting to knock Gregor back into his room. Then he looked +uncertainly round the living room, covered his eyes with his hands +and wept so that his powerful chest shook. +So Gregor did not go into the room, but leant against the inside of +the other door which was still held bolted in place. In this way +only half of his body could be seen, along with his head above it +which he leant over to one side as he peered out at the others. +Meanwhile the day had become much lighter; part of the endless, +grey-black building on the other side of the street - which was a +hospital - could be seen quite clearly with the austere and regular +line of windows piercing its facade; the rain was still +falling, now throwing down large, individual droplets which hit the +19 +ground one at a time. The washing up from breakfast lay on the +table; there was so much of it because, for Gregor's father, +breakfast was the most important meal of the day and he would +stretch it out for several hours as he sat reading a number of +different newspapers. On the wall exactly opposite there was +photograph of Gregor when he was a lieutenant in the army, his sword +in his hand and a carefree smile on his face as he called forth +respect for his uniform and bearing. The door to the entrance hall +was open and as the front door of the flat was also open he could +see onto the landing and the stairs where they began their way down +below. +"Now, then", said Gregor, well aware that he was the only one to +have kept calm, "I'll get dressed straight away now, pack up my +samples and set off. Will you please just let me leave? You can +see", he said to the chief clerk, "that I'm not stubborn and like I +like to do my job; being a commercial traveller is arduous but +without travelling I couldn't earn my living. So where are you +going, in to the office? Yes? Will you report everything accurately, +then? It's quite possible for someone to be temporarily unable to +work, but that's just the right time to remember what's been +achieved in the past and consider that later on, once the difficulty +has been removed, he will certainly work with all the more diligence +and concentration. You're well aware that I'm seriously in debt to +our employer as well as having to look after my parents and my +sister, so that I'm trapped in a difficult situation, but I will +work my way out of it again. Please don't make things any harder +20 +for me than they are already, and don't take sides against me at the +office. I know that nobody likes the travellers. They think we +earn an enormous wage as well as having a soft time of it. That's +just prejudice but they have no particular reason to think better +it. But you, sir, you have a better overview than the rest of the +staff, in fact, if I can say this in confidence, a better overview +than the boss himself - it's very easy for a businessman like him to +make mistakes about his employees and judge them more harshly than +he should. And you're also well aware that we travellers spend +almost the whole year away from the office, so that we can very +easily fall victim to gossip and chance and groundless complaints, +and it's almost impossible to defend yourself from that sort of +thing, we don't usually even hear about them, or if at all it's when +we arrive back home exhausted from a trip, and that's when we feel +the harmful effects of what's been going on without even knowing +what caused them. Please, don't go away, at least first say +something to show that you grant that I'm at least partly right!" +But the chief clerk had turned away as soon as Gregor had started to +speak, and, with protruding lips, only stared back at him over his +trembling shoulders as he left. He did not keep still for a moment +while Gregor was speaking, but moved steadily towards the door +without taking his eyes off him. He moved very gradually, as if +there had been some secret prohibition on leaving the room. It was +only when he had reached the entrance hall that he made a sudden +movement, drew his foot from the living room, and rushed forward in +a panic. In the hall, he stretched his right hand far out towards +21 +the stairway as if out there, there were some supernatural force +waiting to save him. +Gregor realised that it was out of the question to let the chief +clerk go away in this mood if his position in the firm was not to be +put into extreme danger. That was something his parents did not +understand very well; over the years, they had become convinced that +this job would provide for Gregor for his entire life, and besides, +they had so much to worry about at present that they had lost sight +of any thought for the future. Gregor, though, did think about the +future. The chief clerk had to be held back, calmed down, convinced +and finally won over; the future of Gregor and his family depended +on it! If only his sister were here! She was clever; she was already +in tears while Gregor was still lying peacefully on his back. And +the chief clerk was a lover of women, surely she could persuade him; +she would close the front door in the entrance hall and talk him out +of his shocked state. But his sister was not there, Gregor would +have to do the job himself. And without considering that he still +was not familiar with how well he could move about in his present +state, or that his speech still might not - or probably would not - +be understood, he let go of the door; pushed himself through the +opening; tried to reach the chief clerk on the landing who, +ridiculously, was holding on to the banister with both hands; but +Gregor fell immediately over and, with a little scream as he sought +something to hold onto, landed on his numerous little legs. Hardly +had that happened than, for the first time that day, he began to +feel alright with his body; the little legs had the solid ground +22 +under them; to his pleasure, they did exactly as he told them; they +were even making the effort to carry him where he wanted to go; and +he was soon believing that all his sorrows would soon be finally at +an end. He held back the urge to move but swayed from side to side +as he crouched there on the floor. His mother was not far away in +front of him and seemed, at first, quite engrossed in herself, but +then she suddenly jumped up with her arms outstretched and her +fingers spread shouting: "Help, for pity's sake, Help!" The way she +held her head suggested she wanted to see Gregor better, but the +unthinking way she was hurrying backwards showed that she did not; +she had forgotten that the table was behind her with all the +breakfast things on it; when she reached the table she sat quickly +down on it without knowing what she was doing; without even seeming +to notice that the coffee pot had been knocked over and a gush of +coffee was pouring down onto the carpet. +"Mother, mother", said Gregor gently, looking up at her. He had +completely forgotten the chief clerk for the moment, but could not +help himself snapping in the air with his jaws at the sight of the +flow of coffee. That set his mother screaming anew, she fled from +the table and into the arms of his father as he rushed towards her. +Gregor, though, had no time to spare for his parents now; the chief +clerk had already reached the stairs; with his chin on the banister, +he looked back for the last time. Gregor made a run for him; he +wanted to be sure of reaching him; the chief clerk must have +expected something, as he leapt down several steps at once and +disappeared; his shouts resounding all around the staircase. The +23 +flight of the chief clerk seemed, unfortunately, to put Gregor's +father into a panic as well. Until then he had been relatively self +controlled, but now, instead of running after the chief clerk +himself, or at least not impeding Gregor as he ran after him, +Gregor's father seized the chief clerk's stick in his right hand +(the chief clerk had left it behind on a chair, along with his hat +and overcoat), picked up a large newspaper from the table with his +left, and used them to drive Gregor back into his room, stamping his +foot at him as he went. Gregor's appeals to his father were of no +help, his appeals were simply not understood, however much he humbly +turned his head his father merely stamped his foot all the harder. +Across the room, despite the chilly weather, Gregor's mother had +pulled open a window, leant far out of it and pressed her hands to +her face. A strong draught of air flew in from the street towards +the stairway, the curtains flew up, the newspapers on the table +fluttered and some of them were blown onto the floor. Nothing would +stop Gregor's father as he drove him back, making hissing noises at +him like a wild man. Gregor had never had any practice in moving +backwards and was only able to go very slowly. If Gregor had only +been allowed to turn round he would have been back in his room +straight away, but he was afraid that if he took the time to do that +his father would become impatient, and there was the threat of a +lethal blow to his back or head from the stick in his father's hand +any moment. Eventually, though, Gregor realised that he had no +choice as he saw, to his disgust, that he was quite incapable of +going backwards in a straight line; so he began, as quickly as +possible and with frequent anxious glances at his father, to turn +24 +himself round. It went very slowly, but perhaps his father was able +to see his good intentions as he did nothing to hinder him, in fact +now and then he used the tip of his stick to give directions from a +distance as to which way to turn. If only his father would stop +that unbearable hissing! It was making Gregor quite confused. When +he had nearly finished turning round, still listening to that +hissing, he made a mistake and turned himself back a little the way +he had just come. He was pleased when he finally had his head in +front of the doorway, but then saw that it was too narrow, and his +body was too broad to get through it without further difficulty. In +his present mood, it obviously did not occur to his father to open +the other of the double doors so that Gregor would have enough space +to get through. He was merely fixed on the idea that Gregor should +be got back into his room as quickly as possible. Nor would he ever +have allowed Gregor the time to get himself upright as preparation +for getting through the doorway. What he did, making more noise +than ever, was to drive Gregor forwards all the harder as if there +had been nothing in the way; it sounded to Gregor as if there was +now more than one father behind him; it was not a pleasant +experience, and Gregor pushed himself into the doorway without +regard for what might happen. One side of his body lifted itself, +he lay at an angle in the doorway, one flank scraped on the white +door and was painfully injured, leaving vile brown flecks on it, +soon he was stuck fast and would not have been able to move at all +by himself, the little legs along one side hung quivering in the air +while those on the other side were pressed painfully against the +ground. Then his father gave him a hefty shove from behind which +25 +released him from where he was held and sent him flying, and heavily +bleeding, deep into his room. The door was slammed shut with the +stick, then, finally, all was quiet. +II +It was not until it was getting dark that evening that Gregor awoke +from his deep and coma-like sleep. He would have woken soon +afterwards anyway even if he hadn't been disturbed, as he had had +enough sleep and felt fully rested. But he had the impression that +some hurried steps and the sound of the door leading into the front +room being carefully shut had woken him. The light from the +electric street lamps shone palely here and there onto the ceiling +and tops of the furniture, but down below, where Gregor was, it was +dark. He pushed himself over to the door, feeling his way clumsily +with his antennae - of which he was now beginning to learn the value +- in order to see what had been happening there. The whole of his +left side seemed like one, painfully stretched scar, and he limped +badly on his two rows of legs. One of the legs had been badly +injured in the events of that morning - it was nearly a miracle that +only one of them had been - and dragged along lifelessly. +It was only when he had reached the door that he realised what it +actually was that had drawn him over to it; it was the smell of +26 +something to eat. By the door there was a dish filled with +sweetened milk with little pieces of white bread floating in it. He +was so pleased he almost laughed, as he was even hungrier than he +had been that morning, and immediately dipped his head into the +milk, nearly covering his eyes with it. But he soon drew his head +back again in disappointment; not only did the pain in his tender +left side make it difficult to eat the food - he was only able to +eat if his whole body worked together as a snuffling whole - but the +milk did not taste at all nice. Milk like this was normally his +favourite drink, and his sister had certainly left it there for him +because of that, but he turned, almost against his own will, away +from the dish and crawled back into the centre of the room. +Through the crack in the door, Gregor could see that the gas had +been lit in the living room. His father at this time would normally +be sat with his evening paper, reading it out in a loud voice to +Gregor's mother, and sometimes to his sister, but there was now not +a sound to be heard. Gregor's sister would often write and tell him +about this reading, but maybe his father had lost the habit in +recent times. It was so quiet all around too, even though there +must have been somebody in the flat. "What a quiet life it is the +family lead", said Gregor to himself, and, gazing into the darkness, +felt a great pride that he was able to provide a life like that in +such a nice home for his sister and parents. But what now, if all +this peace and wealth and comfort should come to a horrible and +frightening end? That was something that Gregor did not want to +think about too much, so he started to move about, crawling up and +27 +down the room. +Once during that long evening, the door on one side of the room was +opened very slightly and hurriedly closed again; later on the door +on the other side did the same; it seemed that someone needed to +enter the room but thought better of it. Gregor went and waited +immediately by the door, resolved either to bring the timorous +visitor into the room in some way or at least to find out who it +was; but the door was opened no more that night and Gregor waited in +vain. The previous morning while the doors were locked everyone had +wanted to get in there to him, but now, now that he had opened up +one of the doors and the other had clearly been unlocked some time +during the day, no-one came, and the keys were in the other sides. +It was not until late at night that the gaslight in the living room +was put out, and now it was easy to see that parents and sister had +stayed awake all that time, as they all could be distinctly heard as +they went away together on tip-toe. It was clear that no-one would +come into Gregor's room any more until morning; that gave him plenty +of time to think undisturbed about how he would have to re-arrange +his life. For some reason, the tall, empty room where he was forced +to remain made him feel uneasy as he lay there flat on the floor, +even though he had been living in it for five years. Hardly aware +of what he was doing other than a slight feeling of shame, he +hurried under the couch. It pressed down on his back a little, and +he was no longer able to lift his head, but he nonetheless felt +immediately at ease and his only regret was that his body was too +28 +broad to get it all underneath. +He spent the whole night there. Some of the time he passed in a +light sleep, although he frequently woke from it in alarm because of +his hunger, and some of the time was spent in worries and vague +hopes which, however, always led to the same conclusion: for the +time being he must remain calm, he must show patience and the +greatest consideration so that his family could bear the +unpleasantness that he, in his present condition, was forced to +impose on them. +Gregor soon had the opportunity to test the strength of his +decisions, as early the next morning, almost before the night had +ended, his sister, nearly fully dressed, opened the door from the +front room and looked anxiously in. She did not see him straight +away, but when she did notice him under the couch - he had to be +somewhere, for God's sake, he couldn't have flown away - she was so +shocked that she lost control of herself and slammed the door shut +again from outside. But she seemed to regret her behaviour, as she +opened the door again straight away and came in on tip-toe as if +entering the room of someone seriously ill or even of a stranger. +Gregor had pushed his head forward, right to the edge of the couch, +and watched her. Would she notice that he had left the milk as it +was, realise that it was not from any lack of hunger and bring him +in some other food that was more suitable? If she didn't do it +herself he would rather go hungry than draw her attention to it, +although he did feel a terrible urge to rush forward from under the +29 +couch, throw himself at his sister's feet and beg her for something +good to eat. However, his sister noticed the full dish immediately +and looked at it and the few drops of milk splashed around it with +some surprise. She immediately picked it up - using a rag, +not her bare hands - and carried it out. Gregor was extremely +curious as to what she would bring in its place, imagining the +wildest possibilities, but he never could have guessed what his +sister, in her goodness, actually did bring. In order to test his +taste, she brought him a whole selection of things, all spread out +on an old newspaper. There were old, half-rotten vegetables; bones +from the evening meal, covered in white sauce that had gone hard; a +few raisins and almonds; some cheese that Gregor had declared +inedible two days before; a dry roll and some bread spread with +butter and salt. As well as all that she had poured some water into +the dish, which had probably been permanently set aside for Gregor's +use, and placed it beside them. Then, out of consideration for +Gregor's feelings, as she knew that he would not eat in front of +her, she hurried out again and even turned the key in the lock so +that Gregor would know he could make things as comfortable for +himself as he liked. Gregor's little legs whirred, at last he could +eat. What's more, his injuries must already have completely healed +as he found no difficulty in moving. This amazed him, as more than +a month earlier he had cut his finger slightly with a knife, he +thought of how his finger had still hurt the day before yesterday. +"Am I less sensitive than I used to be, then?", he thought, and was +already sucking greedily at the cheese which had immediately, almost +compellingly, attracted him much more than the other foods on the +30 +newspaper. Quickly one after another, his eyes watering with +pleasure, he consumed the cheese, the vegetables and the sauce; the +fresh foods, on the other hand, he didn't like at all, and even +dragged the things he did want to eat a little way away from them +because he couldn't stand the smell. Long after he had finished +eating and lay lethargic in the same place, his sister slowly turned +the key in the lock as a sign to him that he should withdraw. He +was immediately startled, although he had been half asleep, and he +hurried back under the couch. But he needed great self-control to +stay there even for the short time that his sister was in the room, +as eating so much food had rounded out his body a little and he +could hardly breathe in that narrow space. Half suffocating, he +watched with bulging eyes as his sister unselfconsciously took a +broom and swept up the left-overs, mixing them in with the food he +had not even touched at all as if it could not be used any more. +She quickly dropped it all into a bin, closed it with its wooden +lid, and carried everything out. She had hardly turned her back +before Gregor came out again from under the couch and stretched +himself. +This was how Gregor received his food each day now, once in the +morning while his parents and the maid were still asleep, and the +second time after everyone had eaten their meal at midday as his +parents would sleep for a little while then as well, and Gregor's +sister would send the maid away on some errand. Gregor's father and +mother certainly did not want him to starve either, but perhaps it +would have been more than they could stand to have any more +31 +experience of his feeding than being told about it, and perhaps his +sister wanted to spare them what distress she could as they were +indeed suffering enough. +It was impossible for Gregor to find out what they had told the +doctor and the locksmith that first morning to get them out of the +flat. As nobody could understand him, nobody, not even his sister, +thought that he could understand them, so he had to be content to +hear his sister's sighs and appeals to the saints as she moved about +his room. It was only later, when she had become a little more used +to everything - there was, of course, no question of her ever +becoming fully used to the situation - that Gregor would sometimes +catch a friendly comment, or at least a comment that could be +construed as friendly. "He's enjoyed his dinner today", she might +say when he had diligently cleared away all the food left for him, +or if he left most of it, which slowly became more and more +frequent, she would often say, sadly, "now everything's just been +left there again". +Although Gregor wasn't able to hear any news directly he did listen +to much of what was said in the next rooms, and whenever he heard +anyone speaking he would scurry straight to the appropriate door and +press his whole body against it. There was seldom any conversation, +especially at first, that was not about him in some way, even if +only in secret. For two whole days, all the talk at every mealtime +was about what they should do now; but even between meals they spoke +about the same subject as there were always at least two members of +32 +the family at home - nobody wanted to be at home by themselves and +it was out of the question to leave the flat entirely empty. And on +the very first day the maid had fallen to her knees and begged +Gregor's mother to let her go without delay. It was not very clear +how much she knew of what had happened but she left within a quarter +of an hour, tearfully thanking Gregor's mother for her dismissal as +if she had done her an enormous service. She even swore +emphatically not to tell anyone the slightest about what had +happened, even though no-one had asked that of her. +Now Gregor's sister also had to help his mother with the cooking; +although that was not so much bother as no-one ate very much. +Gregor often heard how one of them would unsuccessfully urge another +to eat, and receive no more answer than "no thanks, I've had enough" +or something similar. No-one drank very much either. His sister +would sometimes ask his father whether he would like a beer, hoping +for the chance to go and fetch it herself. When his father then +said nothing she would add, so that he would not feel selfish, that +she could send the housekeeper for it, but then his father would +close the matter with a big, loud "No", and no more would be said. +Even before the first day had come to an end, his father had +explained to Gregor's mother and sister what their finances and +prospects were. Now and then he stood up from the table and took +some receipt or document from the little cash box he had saved from +his business when it had collapsed five years earlier. Gregor heard +how he opened the complicated lock and then closed it again after he +33 +had taken the item he wanted. What he heard his father say was some +of the first good news that Gregor heard since he had first been +incarcerated in his room. He had thought that nothing at all +remained from his father's business, at least he had never told him +anything different, and Gregor had never asked him about it anyway. +Their business misfortune had reduced the family to a state of total +despair, and Gregor's only concern at that time had been to arrange +things so that they could all forget about it as quickly as +possible. So then he started working especially hard, with a fiery +vigour that raised him from a junior salesman to a travelling +representative almost overnight, bringing with it the chance to earn +money in quite different ways. Gregor converted his success at work +straight into cash that he could lay on the table at home for the +benefit of his astonished and delighted family. They had been good +times and they had never come again, at least not with the same +splendour, even though Gregor had later earned so much that he was +in a position to bear the costs of the whole family, and did bear +them. They had even got used to it, both Gregor and the family, +they took the money with gratitude and he was glad to provide it, +although there was no longer much warm affection given in return. +Gregor only remained close to his sister now. Unlike him, she was +very fond of music and a gifted and expressive violinist, it was his +secret plan to send her to the conservatory next year even though it +would cause great expense that would have to be made up for in some +other way. During Gregor's short periods in town, conversation with +his sister would often turn to the conservatory but it was only ever +mentioned as a lovely dream that could never be realised. Their +34 +parents did not like to hear this innocent talk, but Gregor thought +about it quite hard and decided he would let them know what he +planned with a grand announcement of it on Christmas day. +That was the sort of totally pointless thing that went through his +mind in his present state, pressed upright against the door and +listening. There were times when he simply became too tired to +continue listening, when his head would fall wearily against the +door and he would pull it up again with a start, as even the +slightest noise he caused would be heard next door and they would +all go silent. "What's that he's doing now", his father would say +after a while, clearly having gone over to the door, and only then +would the interrupted conversation slowly be taken up again. +When explaining things, his father repeated himself several times, +partly because it was a long time since he had been occupied with +these matters himself and partly because Gregor's mother did not +understand everything first time. From these repeated explanations +Gregor learned, to his pleasure, that despite all their misfortunes +there was still some money available from the old days. It was not +a lot, but it had not been touched in the meantime and some interest +had accumulated. Besides that, they had not been using up all the +money that Gregor had been bringing home every month, keeping only a +little for himself, so that that, too, had been accumulating. +Behind the door, Gregor nodded with enthusiasm in his pleasure at +this unexpected thrift and caution. He could actually have used +this surplus money to reduce his father's debt to his boss, and the +35 +day when he could have freed himself from that job would have come +much closer, but now it was certainly better the way his father had +done things. +This money, however, was certainly not enough to enable the family +to live off the interest; it was enough to maintain them for, +perhaps, one or two years, no more. That's to say, it was money +that should not really be touched but set aside for emergencies; +money to live on had to be earned. His father was healthy but old, +and lacking in self confidence. During the five years that he had +not been working - the first holiday in a life that had been full of +strain and no success - he had put on a lot of weight and become +very slow and clumsy. Would Gregor's elderly mother now have to go +and earn money? She suffered from asthma and it was a strain for her +just to move about the home, every other day would be spent +struggling for breath on the sofa by the open window. Would his +sister have to go and earn money? She was still a child of +seventeen, her life up till then had been very enviable, consisting +of wearing nice clothes, sleeping late, helping out in the business, +joining in with a few modest pleasures and most of all playing the +violin. Whenever they began to talk of the need to earn money, +Gregor would always first let go of the door and then throw himself +onto the cool, leather sofa next to it, as he became quite hot with +shame and regret. +He would often lie there the whole night through, not sleeping a +wink but scratching at the leather for hours on end. Or he might go +36 +to all the effort of pushing a chair to the window, climbing up onto +the sill and, propped up in the chair, leaning on the window to +stare out of it. He had used to feel a great sense of freedom from +doing this, but doing it now was obviously something more remembered +than experienced, as what he actually saw in this way was becoming +less distinct every day, even things that were quite near; he had +used to curse the ever-present view of the hospital across the +street, but now he could not see it at all, and if he had not known +that he lived in Charlottenstrasse, which was a quiet street despite +being in the middle of the city, he could have thought that he was +looking out the window at a barren waste where the grey sky and the +grey earth mingled inseparably. His observant sister only needed to +notice the chair twice before she would always push it back to its +exact position by the window after she had tidied up the room, and +even left the inner pane of the window open from then on. +If Gregor had only been able to speak to his sister and thank her +for all that she had to do for him it would have been easier for him +to bear it; but as it was it caused him pain. His sister, +naturally, tried as far as possible to pretend there was nothing +burdensome about it, and the longer it went on, of course, the +better she was able to do so, but as time went by Gregor was also +able to see through it all so much better. It had even become very +unpleasant for him, now, whenever she entered the room. No sooner +had she come in than she would quickly close the door as a +precaution so that no-one would have to suffer the view into +Gregor's room, then she would go straight to the window and pull it +37 +hurriedly open almost as if she were suffocating. Even if it was +cold, she would stay at the window breathing deeply for a little +while. She would alarm Gregor twice a day with this running about +and noise making; he would stay under the couch shivering the whole +while, knowing full well that she would certainly have liked to +spare him this ordeal, but it was impossible for her to be in the +same room with him with the windows closed. +One day, about a month after Gregor's transformation when his sister +no longer had any particular reason to be shocked at his appearance, +she came into the room a little earlier than usual and found him +still staring out the window, motionless, and just where he would be +most horrible. In itself, his sister's not coming into the room +would have been no surprise for Gregor as it would have been +difficult for her to immediately open the window while he was still +there, but not only did she not come in, she went straight back and +closed the door behind her, a stranger would have thought he had +threatened her and tried to bite her. Gregor went straight to hide +himself under the couch, of course, but he had to wait until midday +before his sister came back and she seemed much more uneasy than +usual. It made him realise that she still found his appearance +unbearable and would continue to do so, she probably even had to +overcome the urge to flee when she saw the little bit of him that +protruded from under the couch. One day, in order to spare her even +this sight, he spent four hours carrying the bedsheet over to the +couch on his back and arranged it so that he was completely covered +and his sister would not be able to see him even if she bent down. +38 +If she did not think this sheet was necessary then all she had to do +was take it off again, as it was clear enough that it was no +pleasure for Gregor to cut himself off so completely. She left the +sheet where it was. Gregor even thought he glimpsed a look of +gratitude one time when he carefully looked out from under the sheet +to see how his sister liked the new arrangement. +For the first fourteen days, Gregor's parents could not bring +themselves to come into the room to see him. He would often hear +them say how they appreciated all the new work his sister was doing +even though, before, they had seen her as a girl who was somewhat +useless and frequently been annoyed with her. But now the two of +them, father and mother, would often both wait outside the door of +Gregor's room while his sister tidied up in there, and as soon as +she went out again she would have to tell them exactly how +everything looked, what Gregor had eaten, how he had behaved this +time and whether, perhaps, any slight improvement could be seen. +His mother also wanted to go in and visit Gregor relatively soon but +his father and sister at first persuaded her against it. Gregor +listened very closely to all this, and approved fully. Later, +though, she had to be held back by force, which made her call out: +"Let me go and see Gregor, he is my unfortunate son! Can't you +understand I have to see him?", and Gregor would think to himself +that maybe it would be better if his mother came in, not every day +of course, but one day a week, perhaps; she could understand +everything much better than his sister who, for all her courage, was +still just a child after all, and really might not have had an +39 +adult's appreciation of the burdensome job she had taken on. +Gregor's wish to see his mother was soon realised. Out of +consideration for his parents, Gregor wanted to avoid being seen at +the window during the day, the few square meters of the floor did +not give him much room to crawl about, it was hard to just lie +quietly through the night, his food soon stopped giving him any +pleasure at all, and so, to entertain himself, he got into the habit +of crawling up and down the walls and ceiling. He was especially +fond of hanging from the ceiling; it was quite different from lying +on the floor; he could breathe more freely; his body had a light +swing to it; and up there, relaxed and almost happy, it might happen +that he would surprise even himself by letting go of the ceiling and +landing on the floor with a crash. But now, of course, he had far +better control of his body than before and, even with a fall as +great as that, caused himself no damage. Very soon his sister +noticed Gregor's new way of entertaining himself - he had, after +all, left traces of the adhesive from his feet as he crawled about - +and got it into her head to make it as easy as possible for him by +removing the furniture that got in his way, especially the chest of +drawers and the desk. Now, this was not something that she would be +able to do by herself; she did not dare to ask for help from her +father; the sixteen year old maid had carried on bravely since the +cook had left but she certainly would not have helped in this, she +had even asked to be allowed to keep the kitchen locked at all times +and never to have to open the door unless it was especially +important; so his sister had no choice but to choose some time when +40 +Gregor's father was not there and fetch his mother to help her. As +she approached the room, Gregor could hear his mother express her +joy, but once at the door she went silent. First, of course, his +sister came in and looked round to see that everything in the room +was alright; and only then did she let her mother enter. Gregor had +hurriedly pulled the sheet down lower over the couch and put more +folds into it so that everything really looked as if it had just +been thrown down by chance. Gregor also refrained, this time, from +spying out from under the sheet; he gave up the chance to see his +mother until later and was simply glad that she had come. "You can +come in, he can't be seen", said his sister, obviously leading her +in by the hand. The old chest of drawers was too heavy for a pair +of feeble women to be heaving about, but Gregor listened as they +pushed it from its place, his sister always taking on the heaviest +part of the work for herself and ignoring her mother's warnings that +she would strain herself. This lasted a very long time. After +labouring at it for fifteen minutes or more his mother said it would +be better to leave the chest where it was, for one thing it was too +heavy for them to get the job finished before Gregor's father got +home and leaving it in the middle of the room it would be in his way +even more, and for another thing it wasn't even sure that taking the +furniture away would really be any help to him. She thought just +the opposite; the sight of the bare walls saddened her right to her +heart; and why wouldn't Gregor feel the same way about it, he'd been +used to this furniture in his room for a long time and it would make +him feel abandoned to be in an empty room like that. Then, quietly, +almost whispering as if wanting Gregor (whose whereabouts she did +41 +not know) to hear not even the tone of her voice, as she was +convinced that he did not understand her words, she added "and by +taking the furniture away, won't it seem like we're showing that +we've given up all hope of improvement and we're abandoning him to +cope for himself? I think it'd be best to leave the room exactly the +way it was before so that when Gregor comes back to us again he'll +find everything unchanged and he'll be able to forget the time in +between all the easier". +Hearing these words from his mother made Gregor realise that the +lack of any direct human communication, along with the monotonous +life led by the family during these two months, must have made him +confused - he could think of no other way of explaining to himself +why he had seriously wanted his room emptied out. Had he really +wanted to transform his room into a cave, a warm room fitted out +with the nice furniture he had inherited? That would have let him +crawl around unimpeded in any direction, but it would also have let +him quickly forget his past when he had still been human. He had +come very close to forgetting, and it had only been the voice of his +mother, unheard for so long, that had shaken him out of it. Nothing +should be removed; everything had to stay; he could not do without +the good influence the furniture had on his condition; and if the +furniture made it difficult for him to crawl about mindlessly that +was not a loss but a great advantage. +His sister, unfortunately, did not agree; she had become used to the +idea, not without reason, that she was Gregor's spokesman to his +42 +parents about the things that concerned him. This meant that his +mother's advice now was sufficient reason for her to insist on +removing not only the chest of drawers and the desk, as she had +thought at first, but all the furniture apart from the all-important +couch. It was more than childish perversity, of course, or the +unexpected confidence she had recently acquired, that made her +insist; she had indeed noticed that Gregor needed a lot of room to +crawl about in, whereas the furniture, as far as anyone could see, +was of no use to him at all. Girls of that age, though, do become +enthusiastic about things and feel they must get their way whenever +they can. Perhaps this was what tempted Grete to make Gregor's +situation seem even more shocking than it was so that she could do +even more for him. Grete would probably be the only one who would +dare enter a room dominated by Gregor crawling about the bare walls +by himself. +So she refused to let her mother dissuade her. Gregor's mother +already looked uneasy in his room, she soon stopped speaking and +helped Gregor's sister to get the chest of drawers out with what +strength she had. The chest of drawers was something that Gregor +could do without if he had to, but the writing desk had to stay. +Hardly had the two women pushed the chest of drawers, groaning, out +of the room than Gregor poked his head out from under the couch to +see what he could do about it. He meant to be as careful and +considerate as he could, but, unfortunately, it was his mother who +came back first while Grete in the next room had her arms round the +chest, pushing and pulling at it from side to side by herself +43 +without, of course, moving it an inch. His mother was not used to +the sight of Gregor, he might have made her ill, so Gregor hurried +backwards to the far end of the couch. In his startlement, though, +he was not able to prevent the sheet at its front from moving a +little. It was enough to attract his mother's attention. She stood +very still, remained there a moment, and then went back out to +Grete. +Gregor kept trying to assure himself that nothing unusual was +happening, it was just a few pieces of furniture being moved after +all, but he soon had to admit that the women going to and fro, their +little calls to each other, the scraping of the furniture on the +floor, all these things made him feel as if he were being assailed +from all sides. With his head and legs pulled in against him and +his body pressed to the floor, he was forced to admit to himself +that he could not stand all of this much longer. They were emptying +his room out; taking away everything that was dear to him; they had +already taken out the chest containing his fretsaw and other tools; +now they threatened to remove the writing desk with its place +clearly worn into the floor, the desk where he had done his homework +as a business trainee, at high school, even while he had been at +infant school - he really could not wait any longer to see whether +the two women's intentions were good. He had nearly forgotten they +were there anyway, as they were now too tired to say anything while +they worked and he could only hear their feet as they stepped +heavily on the floor. +44 +So, while the women were leant against the desk in the other room +catching their breath, he sallied out, changed direction four times +not knowing what he should save first before his attention was +suddenly caught by the picture on the wall - which was already +denuded of everything else that had been on it - of the lady dressed +in copious fur. He hurried up onto the picture and pressed himself +against its glass, it held him firmly and felt good on his hot +belly. This picture at least, now totally covered by Gregor, would +certainly be taken away by no-one. He turned his head to face the +door into the living room so that he could watch the women when they +came back. +They had not allowed themselves a long rest and came back quite +soon; Grete had put her arm around her mother and was nearly +carrying her. "What shall we take now, then?", said Grete and +looked around. Her eyes met those of Gregor on the wall. Perhaps +only because her mother was there, she remained calm, bent her face +to her so that she would not look round and said, albeit hurriedly +and with a tremor in her voice: "Come on, let's go back in the +living room for a while?" Gregor could see what Grete had in mind, +she wanted to take her mother somewhere safe and then chase him down +from the wall. Well, she could certainly try it! He sat unyielding +on his picture. He would rather jump at Grete's face. +But Grete's words had made her mother quite worried, she stepped to +one side, saw the enormous brown patch against the flowers of the +wallpaper, and before she even realised it was Gregor that she saw +45 +screamed: "Oh God, oh God!" Arms outstretched, she fell onto the +couch as if she had given up everything and stayed there immobile. +"Gregor!" shouted his sister, glowering at him and shaking her fist. +That was the first word she had spoken to him directly since his +transformation. She ran into the other room to fetch some kind of +smelling salts to bring her mother out of her faint; Gregor wanted +to help too - he could save his picture later, although he stuck +fast to the glass and had to pull himself off by force; then he, +too, ran into the next room as if he could advise his sister like in +the old days; but he had to just stand behind her doing nothing; she +was looking into various bottles, he startled her when she turned +round; a bottle fell to the ground and broke; a splinter cut +Gregor's face, some kind of caustic medicine splashed all over him; +now, without delaying any longer, Grete took hold of all the bottles +she could and ran with them in to her mother; she slammed the door +shut with her foot. So now Gregor was shut out from his mother, +who, because of him, might be near to death; he could not open the +door if he did not want to chase his sister away, and she had to +stay with his mother; there was nothing for him to do but wait; and, +oppressed with anxiety and self-reproach, he began to crawl about, +he crawled over everything, walls, furniture, ceiling, and finally +in his confusion as the whole room began to spin around him he fell +down into the middle of the dinner table. +He lay there for a while, numb and immobile, all around him it was +quiet, maybe that was a good sign. Then there was someone at the +door. The maid, of course, had locked herself in her kitchen so +46 +that Grete would have to go and answer it. His father had arrived +home. "What's happened?" were his first words; Grete's appearance +must have made everything clear to him. She answered him with +subdued voice, and openly pressed her face into his chest: "Mother's +fainted, but she's better now. Gregor got out." "Just as I +expected", said his father, "just as I always said, but you women +wouldn't listen, would you." It was clear to Gregor that Grete had +not said enough and that his father took it to mean that something +bad had happened, that he was responsible for some act of violence. +That meant Gregor would now have to try to calm his father, as he +did not have the time to explain things to him even if that had been +possible. So he fled to the door of his room and pressed himself +against it so that his father, when he came in from the hall, could +see straight away that Gregor had the best intentions and would go +back into his room without delay, that it would not be necessary to +drive him back but that they had only to open the door and he would +disappear. +His father, though, was not in the mood to notice subtleties like +that; "Ah!", he shouted as he came in, sounding as if he were both +angry and glad at the same time. Gregor drew his head back from the +door and lifted it towards his father. He really had not imagined +his father the way he stood there now; of late, with his new habit +of crawling about, he had neglected to pay attention to what was +going on the rest of the flat the way he had done before. He really +ought to have expected things to have changed, but still, still, was +that really his father? The same tired man as used to be laying +47 +there entombed in his bed when Gregor came back from his business +trips, who would receive him sitting in the armchair in his +nightgown when he came back in the evenings; who was hardly even +able to stand up but, as a sign of his pleasure, would just raise +his arms and who, on the couple of times a year when they went for a +walk together on a Sunday or public holiday wrapped up tightly in +his overcoat between Gregor and his mother, would always labour his +way forward a little more slowly than them, who were already walking +slowly for his sake; who would place his stick down carefully and, +if he wanted to say something would invariably stop and gather his +companions around him. He was standing up straight enough now; +dressed in a smart blue uniform with gold buttons, the sort worn by +the employees at the banking institute; above the high, stiff collar +of the coat his strong double-chin emerged; under the bushy +eyebrows, his piercing, dark eyes looked out fresh and alert; his +normally unkempt white hair was combed down painfully close to his +scalp. He took his cap, with its gold monogram from, probably, some +bank, and threw it in an arc right across the room onto the sofa, +put his hands in his trouser pockets, pushing back the bottom of his +long uniform coat, and, with look of determination, walked towards +Gregor. He probably did not even know himself what he had in mind, +but nonetheless lifted his feet unusually high. Gregor was amazed +at the enormous size of the soles of his boots, but wasted no time +with that - he knew full well, right from the first day of his new +life, that his father thought it necessary to always be extremely +strict with him. And so he ran up to his father, stopped when his +father stopped, scurried forwards again when he moved, even +48 +slightly. In this way they went round the room several times +without anything decisive happening, without even giving the +impression of a chase as everything went so slowly. Gregor remained +all this time on the floor, largely because he feared his father +might see it as especially provoking if he fled onto the wall or +ceiling. Whatever he did, Gregor had to admit that he certainly +would not be able to keep up this running about for long, as for +each step his father took he had to carry out countless movements. +He became noticeably short of breath, even in his earlier life his +lungs had not been very reliable. Now, as he lurched about in his +efforts to muster all the strength he could for running he could +hardly keep his eyes open; his thoughts became too slow for him to +think of any other way of saving himself than running; he almost +forgot that the walls were there for him to use although, here, they +were concealed behind carefully carved furniture full of notches and +protrusions - then, right beside him, lightly tossed, something flew +down and rolled in front of him. It was an apple; then another one +immediately flew at him; Gregor froze in shock; there was no longer +any point in running as his father had decided to bombard him. He +had filled his pockets with fruit from the bowl on the sideboard and +now, without even taking the time for careful aim, threw one apple +after another. These little, red apples rolled about on the floor, +knocking into each other as if they had electric motors. An apple +thrown without much force glanced against Gregor's back and slid off +without doing any harm. Another one however, immediately following +it, hit squarely and lodged in his back; Gregor wanted to drag +himself away, as if he could remove the surprising, the incredible +49 +pain by changing his position; but he felt as if nailed to the spot +and spread himself out, all his senses in confusion. The last thing +he saw was the door of his room being pulled open, his sister was +screaming, his mother ran out in front of her in her blouse (as his +sister had taken off some of her clothes after she had fainted to +make it easier for her to breathe), she ran to his father, her +skirts unfastened and sliding one after another to the ground, +stumbling over the skirts she pushed herself to his father, her arms +around him, uniting herself with him totally - now Gregor lost his +ability to see anything - her hands behind his father's head begging +him to spare Gregor's life. +III +No-one dared to remove the apple lodged in Gregor's flesh, so it +remained there as a visible reminder of his injury. He had suffered +it there for more than a month, and his condition seemed serious +enough to remind even his father that Gregor, despite his current +sad and revolting form, was a family member who could not be treated +as an enemy. On the contrary, as a family there was a duty to +swallow any revulsion for him and to be patient, just to be patient. +Because of his injuries, Gregor had lost much of his mobility - +probably permanently. He had been reduced to the condition of an +50 +ancient invalid and it took him long, long minutes to crawl across +his room - crawling over the ceiling was out of the question - but +this deterioration in his condition was fully (in his opinion) made +up for by the door to the living room being left open every evening. +He got into the habit of closely watching it for one or two hours +before it was opened and then, lying in the darkness of his room +where he could not be seen from the living room, he could watch the +family in the light of the dinner table and listen to their +conversation - with everyone's permission, in a way, and thus quite +differently from before. +They no longer held the lively conversations of earlier times, of +course, the ones that Gregor always thought about with longing when +he was tired and getting into the damp bed in some small hotel room. +All of them were usually very quiet nowadays. Soon after dinner, +his father would go to sleep in his chair; his mother and sister +would urge each other to be quiet; his mother, bent deeply under the +lamp, would sew fancy underwear for a fashion shop; his sister, who +had taken a sales job, learned shorthand and French in the evenings +so that she might be able to get a better position later on. +Sometimes his father would wake up and say to Gregor's mother +"you're doing so much sewing again today!", as if he did not know +that he had been dozing - and then he would go back to sleep again +while mother and sister would exchange a tired grin. +With a kind of stubbornness, Gregor's father refused to take his +uniform off even at home; while his nightgown hung unused on its peg +51 +Gregor's father would slumber where he was, fully dressed, as if +always ready to serve and expecting to hear the voice of his +superior even here. The uniform had not been new to start with, but +as a result of this it slowly became even shabbier despite the +efforts of Gregor's mother and sister to look after it. Gregor +would often spend the whole evening looking at all the stains on +this coat, with its gold buttons always kept polished and shiny, +while the old man in it would sleep, highly uncomfortable but +peaceful. +As soon as it struck ten, Gregor's mother would speak gently to his +father to wake him and try to persuade him to go to bed, as he +couldn't sleep properly where he was and he really had to get his +sleep if he was to be up at six to get to work. But since he had +been in work he had become more obstinate and would always insist on +staying longer at the table, even though he regularly fell asleep +and it was then harder than ever to persuade him to exchange the +chair for his bed. Then, however much mother and sister would +importune him with little reproaches and warnings he would keep +slowly shaking his head for a quarter of an hour with his eyes +closed and refusing to get up. Gregor's mother would tug at his +sleeve, whisper endearments into his ear, Gregor's sister would +leave her work to help her mother, but nothing would have any effect +on him. He would just sink deeper into his chair. Only when the +two women took him under the arms he would abruptly open his eyes, +look at them one after the other and say: "What a life! This is what +peace I get in my old age!" And supported by the two women he would +52 +lift himself up carefully as if he were carrying the greatest load +himself, let the women take him to the door, send them off and carry +on by himself while Gregor's mother would throw down her needle and +his sister her pen so that they could run after his father and +continue being of help to him. +Who, in this tired and overworked family, would have had time to +give more attention to Gregor than was absolutely necessary? The +household budget became even smaller; so now the maid was dismissed; +an enormous, thick-boned charwoman with white hair that flapped +around her head came every morning and evening to do the heaviest +work; everything else was looked after by Gregor's mother on top of +the large amount of sewing work she did. Gregor even learned, +listening to the evening conversation about what price they had +hoped for, that several items of jewellery belonging to the family +had been sold, even though both mother and sister had been very fond +of wearing them at functions and celebrations. But the loudest +complaint was that although the flat was much too big for their +present circumstances, they could not move out of it, there was no +imaginable way of transferring Gregor to the new address. He could +see quite well, though, that there were more reasons than +consideration for him that made it difficult for them to move, it +would have been quite easy to transport him in any suitable crate +with a few air holes in it; the main thing holding the family back +from their decision to move was much more to do with their total +despair, and the thought that they had been struck with a misfortune +unlike anything experienced by anyone else they knew or were related +53 +to. They carried out absolutely everything that the world expects +from poor people, Gregor's father brought bank employees their +breakfast, his mother sacrificed herself by washing clothes for +strangers, his sister ran back and forth behind her desk at the +behest of the customers, but they just did not have the strength to +do any more. And the injury in Gregor's back began to hurt as much +as when it was new. After they had come back from taking his father +to bed Gregor's mother and sister would now leave their work where +it was and sit close together, cheek to cheek; his mother would +point to Gregor's room and say "Close that door, Grete", and then, +when he was in the dark again, they would sit in the next room and +their tears would mingle, or they would simply sit there staring +dry-eyed at the table. +Gregor hardly slept at all, either night or day. Sometimes he would +think of taking over the family's affairs, just like before, the +next time the door was opened; he had long forgotten about his boss +and the chief clerk, but they would appear again in his thoughts, +the salesmen and the apprentices, that stupid teaboy, two or three +friends from other businesses, one of the chambermaids from a +provincial hotel, a tender memory that appeared and disappeared +again, a cashier from a hat shop for whom his attention had been +serious but too slow, - all of them appeared to him, mixed together +with strangers and others he had forgotten, but instead of helping +him and his family they were all of them inaccessible, and he was +glad when they disappeared. Other times he was not at all in the +mood to look after his family, he was filled with simple rage about +54 +the lack of attention he was shown, and although he could think of +nothing he would have wanted, he made plans of how he could get into +the pantry where he could take all the things he was entitled to, +even if he was not hungry. Gregor's sister no longer thought about +how she could please him but would hurriedly push some food or other +into his room with her foot before she rushed out to work in the +morning and at midday, and in the evening she would sweep it away +again with the broom, indifferent as to whether it had been eaten or +- more often than not - had been left totally untouched. She still +cleared up the room in the evening, but now she could not have been +any quicker about it. Smears of dirt were left on the walls, here +and there were little balls of dust and filth. At first, Gregor +went into one of the worst of these places when his sister arrived +as a reproach to her, but he could have stayed there for weeks +without his sister doing anything about it; she could see the dirt +as well as he could but she had simply decided to leave him to it. +At the same time she became touchy in a way that was quite new for +her and which everyone in the family understood - cleaning up +Gregor's room was for her and her alone. Gregor's mother did once +thoroughly clean his room, and needed to use several bucketfuls of +water to do it - although that much dampness also made Gregor ill +and he lay flat on the couch, bitter and immobile. But his mother +was to be punished still more for what she had done, as hardly had +his sister arrived home in the evening than she noticed the change +in Gregor's room and, highly aggrieved, ran back into the living +room where, despite her mothers raised and imploring hands, she +broke into convulsive tears. Her father, of course, was startled +55 +out of his chair and the two parents looked on astonished and +helpless; then they, too, became agitated; Gregor's father, standing +to the right of his mother, accused her of not leaving the cleaning +of Gregor's room to his sister; from her left, Gregor's sister +screamed at her that she was never to clean Gregor's room again; +while his mother tried to draw his father, who was beside himself +with anger, into the bedroom; his sister, quaking with tears, +thumped on the table with her small fists; and Gregor hissed in +anger that no-one had even thought of closing the door to save him +the sight of this and all its noise. +Gregor's sister was exhausted from going out to work, and looking +after Gregor as she had done before was even more work for her, but +even so his mother ought certainly not to have taken her place. +Gregor, on the other hand, ought not to be neglected. Now, though, +the charwoman was here. This elderly widow, with a robust bone +structure that made her able to withstand the hardest of things in +her long life, wasn't really repelled by Gregor. Just by chance one +day, rather than any real curiosity, she opened the door to Gregor's +room and found herself face to face with him. He was taken totally +by surprise, no-one was chasing him but he began to rush to and fro +while she just stood there in amazement with her hands crossed in +front of her. From then on she never failed to open the door +slightly every evening and morning and look briefly in on him. At +first she would call to him as she did so with words that she +probably considered friendly, such as "come on then, you old +dung-beetle!", or "look at the old dung-beetle there!" Gregor never +56 +responded to being spoken to in that way, but just remained where he +was without moving as if the door had never even been opened. If +only they had told this charwoman to clean up his room every day +instead of letting her disturb him for no reason whenever she felt +like it! One day, early in the morning while a heavy rain struck the +windowpanes, perhaps indicating that spring was coming, she began to +speak to him in that way once again. Gregor was so resentful of it +that he started to move toward her, he was slow and infirm, but it +was like a kind of attack. Instead of being afraid, the charwoman +just lifted up one of the chairs from near the door and stood there +with her mouth open, clearly intending not to close her mouth until +the chair in her hand had been slammed down into Gregor's back. +"Aren't you coming any closer, then?", she asked when Gregor turned +round again, and she calmly put the chair back in the corner. +Gregor had almost entirely stopped eating. Only if he happened to +find himself next to the food that had been prepared for him he +might take some of it into his mouth to play with it, leave it there +a few hours and then, more often than not, spit it out again. At +first he thought it was distress at the state of his room that +stopped him eating, but he had soon got used to the changes made +there. They had got into the habit of putting things into this room +that they had no room for anywhere else, and there were now many +such things as one of the rooms in the flat had been rented out to +three gentlemen. These earnest gentlemen - all three of them had +full beards, as Gregor learned peering through the crack in the door +one day - were painfully insistent on things' being tidy. This +57 +meant not only in their own room but, since they had taken a room in +this establishment, in the entire flat and especially in the +kitchen. Unnecessary clutter was something they could not tolerate, +especially if it was dirty. They had moreover brought most of their +own furnishings and equipment with them. For this reason, many +things had become superfluous which, although they could not be +sold, the family did not wish to discard. All these things found +their way into Gregor's room. The dustbins from the kitchen found +their way in there too. The charwoman was always in a hurry, and +anything she couldn't use for the time being she would just chuck in +there. He, fortunately, would usually see no more than the object +and the hand that held it. The woman most likely meant to fetch the +things back out again when she had time and the opportunity, or to +throw everything out in one go, but what actually happened was that +they were left where they landed when they had first been thrown +unless Gregor made his way through the junk and moved it somewhere +else. At first he moved it because, with no other room free where +he could crawl about, he was forced to, but later on he came to +enjoy it although moving about in the way left him sad and tired to +death and he would remain immobile for hours afterwards. +The gentlemen who rented the room would sometimes take their evening +meal at home in the living room that was used by everyone, and so +the door to this room was often kept closed in the evening. But +Gregor found it easy to give up having the door open, he had, after +all, often failed to make use of it when it was open and, without +the family having noticed it, lain in his room in its darkest +58 +corner. One time, though, the charwoman left the door to the living +room slightly open, and it remained open when the gentlemen who +rented the room came in in the evening and the light was put on. +They sat up at the table where, formerly, Gregor had taken his meals +with his father and mother, they unfolded the serviettes and picked +up their knives and forks. Gregor's mother immediately appeared in +the doorway with a dish of meat and soon behind her came his sister +with a dish piled high with potatoes. The food was steaming, and +filled the room with its smell. The gentlemen bent over the dishes +set in front of them as if they wanted to test the food before +eating it, and the gentleman in the middle, who seemed to count as +an authority for the other two, did indeed cut off a piece of meat +while it was still in its dish, clearly wishing to establish whether +it was sufficiently cooked or whether it should be sent back to the +kitchen. It was to his satisfaction, and Gregor's mother and +sister, who had been looking on anxiously, began to breathe again +and smiled. +The family themselves ate in the kitchen. Nonetheless, Gregor's +father came into the living room before he went into the kitchen, +bowed once with his cap in his hand and did his round of the table. +The gentlemen stood as one, and mumbled something into their beards. +Then, once they were alone, they ate in near perfect silence. It +seemed remarkable to Gregor that above all the various noises of +eating their chewing teeth could still be heard, as if they had +wanted to Show Gregor that you need teeth in order to eat and it was +not possible to perform anything with jaws that are toothless +59 +however nice they might be. "I'd like to eat something", said +Gregor anxiously, "but not anything like they're eating. They do +feed themselves. And here I am, dying!" +Throughout all this time, Gregor could not remember having heard the +violin being played, but this evening it began to be heard from the +kitchen. The three gentlemen had already finished their meal, the +one in the middle had produced a newspaper, given a page to each of +the others, and now they leant back in their chairs reading them and +smoking. When the violin began playing they became attentive, stood +up and went on tip-toe over to the door of the hallway where they +stood pressed against each other. Someone must have heard them in +the kitchen, as Gregor's father called out: "Is the playing perhaps +unpleasant for the gentlemen? We can stop it straight away." "On +the contrary", said the middle gentleman, "would the young lady not +like to come in and play for us here in the room, where it is, after +all, much more cosy and comfortable?" "Oh yes, we'd love to", +called back Gregor's father as if he had been the violin player +himself. The gentlemen stepped back into the room and waited. +Gregor's father soon appeared with the music stand, his mother with +the music and his sister with the violin. She calmly prepared +everything for her to begin playing; his parents, who had never +rented a room out before and therefore showed an exaggerated +courtesy towards the three gentlemen, did not even dare to sit on +their own chairs; his father leant against the door with his right +hand pushed in between two buttons on his uniform coat; his mother, +though, was offered a seat by one of the gentlemen and sat - leaving +60 +the chair where the gentleman happened to have placed it - out of +the way in a corner. +His sister began to play; father and mother paid close attention, +one on each side, to the movements of her hands. Drawn in by the +playing, Gregor had dared to come forward a little and already had +his head in the living room. Before, he had taken great pride in +how considerate he was but now it hardly occurred to him that he had +become so thoughtless about the others. What's more, there was now +all the more reason to keep himself hidden as he was covered in the +dust that lay everywhere in his room and flew up at the slightest +movement; he carried threads, hairs, and remains of food about on +his back and sides; he was much too indifferent to everything now to +lay on his back and wipe himself on the carpet like he had used to +do several times a day. And despite this condition, he was not too +shy to move forward a little onto the immaculate floor of the living +room. +No-one noticed him, though. The family was totally preoccupied with +the violin playing; at first, the three gentlemen had put their +hands in their pockets and come up far too close behind the music +stand to look at all the notes being played, and they must have +disturbed Gregor's sister, but soon, in contrast with the family, +they withdrew back to the window with their heads sunk and talking +to each other at half volume, and they stayed by the window while +Gregor's father observed them anxiously. It really now seemed very +obvious that they had expected to hear some beautiful or +61 +entertaining violin playing but had been disappointed, that they had +had enough of the whole performance and it was only now out of +politeness that they allowed their peace to be disturbed. It was +especially unnerving, the way they all blew the smoke from their +cigarettes upwards from their mouth and noses. Yet Gregor's sister +was playing so beautifully. Her face was leant to one side, +following the lines of music with a careful and melancholy +expression. Gregor crawled a little further forward, keeping his +head close to the ground so that he could meet her eyes if the +chance came. Was he an animal if music could captivate him so? It +seemed to him that he was being shown the way to the unknown +nourishment he had been yearning for. He was determined to make his +way forward to his sister and tug at her skirt to show her she might +come into his room with her violin, as no-one appreciated her +playing here as much as he would. He never wanted to let her out of +his room, not while he lived, anyway; his shocking appearance +should, for once, be of some use to him; he wanted to be at every +door of his room at once to hiss and spit at the attackers; his +sister should not be forced to stay with him, though, but stay of +her own free will; she would sit beside him on the couch with her +ear bent down to him while he told her how he had always intended to +send her to the conservatory, how he would have told everyone about +it last Christmas - had Christmas really come and gone already? - if +this misfortune hadn't got in the way, and refuse to let anyone +dissuade him from it. On hearing all this, his sister would break +out in tears of emotion, and Gregor would climb up to her shoulder +and kiss her neck, which, since she had been going out to work, she +62 +had kept free without any necklace or collar. +"Mr. Samsa!", shouted the middle gentleman to Gregor's father, +pointing, without wasting any more words, with his forefinger at +Gregor as he slowly moved forward. The violin went silent, the +middle of the three gentlemen first smiled at his two friends, +shaking his head, and then looked back at Gregor. His father seemed +to think it more important to calm the three gentlemen before +driving Gregor out, even though they were not at all upset and +seemed to think Gregor was more entertaining that the violin playing +had been. He rushed up to them with his arms spread out and +attempted to drive them back into their room at the same time as +trying to block their view of Gregor with his body. Now they did +become a little annoyed, and it was not clear whether it was his +father's behaviour that annoyed them or the dawning realisation that +they had had a neighbour like Gregor in the next room without +knowing it. They asked Gregor's father for explanations, raised +their arms like he had, tugged excitedly at their beards and moved +back towards their room only very slowly. Meanwhile Gregor's sister +had overcome the despair she had fallen into when her playing was +suddenly interrupted. She had let her hands drop and let violin and +bow hang limply for a while but continued to look at the music as if +still playing, but then she suddenly pulled herself together, lay +the instrument on her mother's lap who still sat laboriously +struggling for breath where she was, and ran into the next room +which, under pressure from her father, the three gentlemen were more +quickly moving toward. Under his sister's experienced hand, the +63 +pillows and covers on the beds flew up and were put into order and +she had already finished making the beds and slipped out again +before the three gentlemen had reached the room. Gregor's father +seemed so obsessed with what he was doing that he forgot all the +respect he owed to his tenants. He urged them and pressed them +until, when he was already at the door of the room, the middle of +the three gentlemen shouted like thunder and stamped his foot and +thereby brought Gregor's father to a halt. "I declare here and +now", he said, raising his hand and glancing at Gregor's mother and +sister to gain their attention too, "that with regard to the +repugnant conditions that prevail in this flat and with this family" +- here he looked briefly but decisively at the floor - "I give +immediate notice on my room. For the days that I have been living +here I will, of course, pay nothing at all, on the contrary I will +consider whether to proceed with some kind of action for damages +from you, and believe me it would be very easy to set out the +grounds for such an action." He was silent and looked straight +ahead as if waiting for something. And indeed, his two friends +joined in with the words: "And we also give immediate notice." With +that, he took hold of the door handle and slammed the door. +Gregor's father staggered back to his seat, feeling his way with his +hands, and fell into it; it looked as if he was stretching himself +out for his usual evening nap but from the uncontrolled way his head +kept nodding it could be seen that he was not sleeping at all. +Throughout all this, Gregor had lain still where the three gentlemen +had first seen him. His disappointment at the failure of his plan, +64 +and perhaps also because he was weak from hunger, made it impossible +for him to move. He was sure that everyone would turn on him any +moment, and he waited. He was not even startled out of this state +when the violin on his mother's lap fell from her trembling fingers +and landed loudly on the floor. +"Father, Mother", said his sister, hitting the table with her hand +as introduction, "we can't carry on like this. Maybe you can't see +it, but I can. I don't want to call this monster my brother, all I +can say is: we have to try and get rid of it. We've done all that's +humanly possible to look after it and be patient, I don't think +anyone could accuse us of doing anything wrong." +"She's absolutely right", said Gregor's father to himself. His +mother, who still had not had time to catch her breath, began to +cough dully, her hand held out in front of her and a deranged +expression in her eyes. +Gregor's sister rushed to his mother and put her hand on her +forehead. Her words seemed to give Gregor's father some more +definite ideas. He sat upright, played with his uniform cap between +the plates left by the three gentlemen after their meal, and +occasionally looked down at Gregor as he lay there immobile. +"We have to try and get rid of it", said Gregor's sister, now +speaking only to her father, as her mother was too occupied with +coughing to listen, "it'll be the death of both of you, I can see it +65 +coming. We can't all work as hard as we have to and then come home +to be tortured like this, we can't endure it. I can't endure it any +more." And she broke out so heavily in tears that they flowed down +the face of her mother, and she wiped them away with mechanical hand +movements. +"My child", said her father with sympathy and obvious understanding, +"what are we to do?" +His sister just shrugged her shoulders as a sign of the helplessness +and tears that had taken hold of her, displacing her earlier +certainty. +"If he could just understand us", said his father almost as a +question; his sister shook her hand vigorously through her tears as +a sign that of that there was no question. +"If he could just understand us", repeated Gregor's father, closing +his eyes in acceptance of his sister's certainty that that was quite +impossible, "then perhaps we could come to some kind of arrangement +with him. But as it is ..." +"It's got to go", shouted his sister, "that's the only way, Father. +You've got to get rid of the idea that that's Gregor. We've only +harmed ourselves by believing it for so long. How can that be +Gregor? If it were Gregor he would have seen long ago that it's not +possible for human beings to live with an animal like that and he +66 +would have gone of his own free will. We wouldn't have a brother +any more, then, but we could carry on with our lives and remember +him with respect. As it is this animal is persecuting us, it's +driven out our tenants, it obviously wants to take over the whole +flat and force us to sleep on the streets. Father, look, just +look", she suddenly screamed, "he's starting again!" In her alarm, +which was totally beyond Gregor's comprehension, his sister even +abandoned his mother as she pushed herself vigorously out of her +chair as if more willing to sacrifice her own mother than stay +anywhere near Gregor. She rushed over to behind her father, who had +become excited merely because she was and stood up half raising his +hands in front of Gregor's sister as if to protect her. +But Gregor had had no intention of frightening anyone, least of all +his sister. All he had done was begin to turn round so that he +could go back into his room, although that was in itself quite +startling as his pain-wracked condition meant that turning round +required a great deal of effort and he was using his head to help +himself do it, repeatedly raising it and striking it against the +floor. He stopped and looked round. They seemed to have realised +his good intention and had only been alarmed briefly. Now they all +looked at him in unhappy silence. His mother lay in her chair with +her legs stretched out and pressed against each other, her eyes +nearly closed with exhaustion; his sister sat next to his father +with her arms around his neck. +"Maybe now they'll let me turn round", thought Gregor and went back +67 +to work. He could not help panting loudly with the effort and had +sometimes to stop and take a rest. No-one was making him rush any +more, everything was left up to him. As soon as he had finally +finished turning round he began to move straight ahead. He was +amazed at the great distance that separated him from his room, and +could not understand how he had covered that distance in his weak +state a little while before and almost without noticing it. He +concentrated on crawling as fast as he could and hardly noticed that +there was not a word, not any cry, from his family to distract him. +He did not turn his head until he had reached the doorway. He did +not turn it all the way round as he felt his neck becoming stiff, +but it was nonetheless enough to see that nothing behind him had +changed, only his sister had stood up. With his last glance he saw +that his mother had now fallen completely asleep. +He was hardly inside his room before the door was hurriedly shut, +bolted and locked. The sudden noise behind Gregor so startled him +that his little legs collapsed under him. It was his sister who had +been in so much of a rush. She had been standing there waiting and +sprung forward lightly, Gregor had not heard her coming at all, and +as she turned the key in the lock she said loudly to her parents "At +last!". +"What now, then?", Gregor asked himself as he looked round in the +darkness. He soon made the discovery that he could no longer move +at all. This was no surprise to him, it seemed rather that being +able to actually move around on those spindly little legs until then +68 +was unnatural. He also felt relatively comfortable. It is true +that his entire body was aching, but the pain seemed to be slowly +getting weaker and weaker and would finally disappear altogether. +He could already hardly feel the decayed apple in his back or the +inflamed area around it, which was entirely covered in white dust. +He thought back of his family with emotion and love. If it was +possible, he felt that he must go away even more strongly than his +sister. He remained in this state of empty and peaceful rumination +until he heard the clock tower strike three in the morning. He +watched as it slowly began to get light everywhere outside the +window too. Then, without his willing it, his head sank down +completely, and his last breath flowed weakly from his nostrils. +When the cleaner came in early in the morning - they'd often asked +her not to keep slamming the doors but with her strength and in her +hurry she still did, so that everyone in the flat knew when she'd +arrived and from then on it was impossible to sleep in peace - she +made her usual brief look in on Gregor and at first found nothing +special. She thought he was laying there so still on purpose, +playing the martyr; she attributed all possible understanding to +him. She happened to be holding the long broom in her hand, so she +tried to tickle Gregor with it from the doorway. When she had no +success with that she tried to make a nuisance of herself and poked +at him a little, and only when she found she could shove him across +the floor with no resistance at all did she start to pay attention. +She soon realised what had really happened, opened her eyes wide, +whistled to herself, but did not waste time to yank open the bedroom +69 +doors and shout loudly into the darkness of the bedrooms: "Come and +'ave a look at this, it's dead, just lying there, stone dead!" +Mr. and Mrs. Samsa sat upright there in their marriage bed and had +to make an effort to get over the shock caused by the cleaner before +they could grasp what she was saying. But then, each from his own +side, they hurried out of bed. Mr. Samsa threw the blanket over his +shoulders, Mrs. Samsa just came out in her nightdress; and that is +how they went into Gregor's room. On the way they opened the door +to the living room where Grete had been sleeping since the three +gentlemen had moved in; she was fully dressed as if she had never +been asleep, and the paleness of her face seemed to confirm this. +"Dead?", asked Mrs. Samsa, looking at the charwoman enquiringly, +even though she could have checked for herself and could have known +it even without checking. "That's what I said", replied the +cleaner, and to prove it she gave Gregor's body another shove with +the broom, sending it sideways across the floor. Mrs. Samsa made a +movement as if she wanted to hold back the broom, but did not +complete it. "Now then", said Mr. Samsa, "let's give thanks to God +for that". He crossed himself, and the three women followed his +example. Grete, who had not taken her eyes from the corpse, said: +"Just look how thin he was. He didn't eat anything for so long. +The food came out again just the same as when it went in". Gregor's +body was indeed completely dried up and flat, they had not seen it +until then, but now he was not lifted up on his little legs, nor did +he do anything to make them look away. +70 +"Grete, come with us in here for a little while", said Mrs. Samsa +with a pained smile, and Grete followed her parents into the bedroom +but not without looking back at the body. The cleaner shut the door +and opened the window wide. Although it was still early in the +morning the fresh air had something of warmth mixed in with it. It +was already the end of March, after all. +The three gentlemen stepped out of their room and looked round in +amazement for their breakfasts; they had been forgotten about. +"Where is our breakfast?", the middle gentleman asked the cleaner +irritably. She just put her finger on her lips and made a quick and +silent sign to the men that they might like to come into Gregor's +room. They did so, and stood around Gregor's corpse with their +hands in the pockets of their well-worn coats. It was now quite +light in the room. +Then the door of the bedroom opened and Mr. Samsa appeared in his +uniform with his wife on one arm and his daughter on the other. All +of them had been crying a little; Grete now and then pressed her +face against her father's arm. +"Leave my home. Now!", said Mr. Samsa, indicating the door and +without letting the women from him. "What do you mean?", asked the +middle of the three gentlemen somewhat disconcerted, and he smiled +sweetly. The other two held their hands behind their backs and +continually rubbed them together in gleeful anticipation of a loud +quarrel which could only end in their favour. "I mean just what I +71 +said", answered Mr. Samsa, and, with his two companions, went in a +straight line towards the man. At first, he stood there still, +looking at the ground as if the contents of his head were +rearranging themselves into new positions. "Alright, we'll go +then", he said, and looked up at Mr. Samsa as if he had been +suddenly overcome with humility and wanted permission again from +Mr. Samsa for his decision. Mr. Samsa merely opened his eyes wide +and briefly nodded to him several times. At that, and without +delay, the man actually did take long strides into the front +hallway; his two friends had stopped rubbing their hands some time +before and had been listening to what was being said. Now they +jumped off after their friend as if taken with a sudden fear that +Mr. Samsa might go into the hallway in front of them and break the +connection with their leader. Once there, all three took their hats +from the stand, took their sticks from the holder, bowed without a +word and left the premises. Mr. Samsa and the two women followed +them out onto the landing; but they had had no reason to mistrust +the men' intentions and as they leaned over the landing they saw how +the three gentlemen made slow but steady progress down the many +steps. As they turned the corner on each floor they disappeared and +would reappear a few moments later; the further down they went, the +more that the Samsa family lost interest in them; when a butcher's +boy, proud of posture with his tray on his head, passed them on his +way up and came nearer than they were, Mr. Samsa and the women came +away from the landing and went, as if relieved, back into the flat. +They decided the best way to make use of that day was for relaxation +72 +and to go for a walk; not only had they earned a break from work but +they were in serious need of it. So they sat at the table and wrote +three letters of excusal, Mr. Samsa to his employers, Mrs. Samsa +to her contractor and Grete to her principal. The cleaner came in +while they were writing to tell them she was going, she'd finished +her work for that morning. The three of them at first just nodded +without looking up from what they were writing, and it was only when +the cleaner still did not seem to want to leave that they looked up +in irritation. "Well?", asked Mr. Samsa. The charwoman stood in +the doorway with a smile on her face as if she had some tremendous +good news to report, but would only do it if she was clearly asked +to. The almost vertical little ostrich feather on her hat, which +had been source of irritation to Mr. Samsa all the time she had +been working for them, swayed gently in all directions. "What is it +you want then?", asked Mrs. Samsa, whom the cleaner had the most +respect for. "Yes", she answered, and broke into a friendly laugh +that made her unable to speak straight away, "well then, that thing +in there, you needn't worry about how you're going to get rid of it. +That's all been sorted out." Mrs. Samsa and Grete bent down over +their letters as if intent on continuing with what they were +writing; Mr. Samsa saw that the cleaner wanted to start describing +everything in detail but, with outstretched hand, he made it quite +clear that she was not to. So, as she was prevented from telling +them all about it, she suddenly remembered what a hurry she was in +and, clearly peeved, called out "Cheerio then, everyone", turned +round sharply and left, slamming the door terribly as she went. +73 +"Tonight she gets sacked", said Mr. Samsa, but he received no reply +from either his wife or his daughter as the charwoman seemed to have +destroyed the peace they had only just gained. They got up and went +over to the window where they remained with their arms around each +other. Mr. Samsa twisted round in his chair to look at them and sat +there watching for a while. Then he called out: "Come here, then. +Let's forget about all that old stuff, shall we. Come and give me a +bit of attention". The two women immediately did as he said, +hurrying over to him where they kissed him and hugged him and then +they quickly finished their letters. +After that, the three of them left the flat together, which was +something they had not done for months, and took the tram out to the +open country outside the town. They had the tram, filled with warm +sunshine, all to themselves. Leant back comfortably on their seats, +they discussed their prospects and found that on closer examination +they were not at all bad - until then they had never asked each +other about their work but all three had jobs which were very good +and held particularly good promise for the future. The greatest +improvement for the time being, of course, would be achieved quite +easily by moving house; what they needed now was a flat that was +smaller and cheaper than the current one which had been chosen by +Gregor, one that was in a better location and, most of all, more +practical. All the time, Grete was becoming livelier. With all the +worry they had been having of late her cheeks had become pale, but, +while they were talking, Mr. and Mrs. Samsa were struck, almost +simultaneously, with the thought of how their daughter was +74 +blossoming into a well built and beautiful young lady. They became +quieter. Just from each other's glance and almost without knowing +it they agreed that it would soon be time to find a good man for +her. And, as if in confirmation of their new dreams and good +intentions, as soon as they reached their destination Grete was the +first to get up and stretch out her young body. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/book_the_little_prince.txt b/data/book_the_little_prince.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..1902010 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/book_the_little_prince.txt @@ -0,0 +1,1861 @@ +Once when I was six years old I saw a magnificent picture in a book, called +True Stories from Nature, about the primeval forest. It was a picture of a boa +constrictor in the act of swallowing an animal. Here is a copy of the drawing. +In the book it said: "Boa constrictors swallow their prey whole, without chewing +it. After that they are not able to move, and they sleep through the six months +that they need for digestion." +I pondered deeply, then, over the adventures of the jungle. And after some +work with a colored pencil I succeeded in making my first drawing. My Drawing +Number One. It looked like this: + +I showed my masterpiece to the grown-ups, and asked them whether the +drawing frightened them. +But they answered: "Frighten? Why should any one be frightened by a hat?" +My drawing was not a picture of a hat. It was a picture of a boa constrictor +digesting an elephant. But since the grown-ups were not able to understand it, +I made another drawing: I drew the inside of the boa constrictor, so that the +grown-ups could see it clearly. They always need to have things explained. My +Drawing Number Two looked like this: + +5 +The grown-ups' response, this time, was to advise me to lay aside my +drawings of boa constrictors, whether from the inside or the outside, and +devote myself instead to geography, history, arithmetic and grammar. That is +why, at the age of six, I gave up what might have been a magnificent career as +a painter. I had been disheartened by the failure of my Drawing Number One +and my Drawing Number Two. Grown-ups never understand anything by +themselves, and it is tiresome for children to be always and forever explaining +things to them. +So then I chose another profession, and learned to pilot airplanes. I have flown +a little over all parts of the world; and it is true that geography has been very +useful to me. At a glance I can distinguish China from Arizona. If one gets lost +in the night, such knowledge is valuable. +In the course of this life I have had a great many encounters with a great many +people who have been concerned with matters of consequence. I have lived a +great deal among grown-ups. I have seen them intimately, close at hand. And +that hasn't much improved my opinion of them. +Whenever I met one of them who seemed to me at all clear-sighted, I tried the +experiment of showing him my Drawing Number One, which I have always +kept. I would try to find out, so, if this was a person of true understanding. But, +whoever it was, he, or she, would always say: +"That is a hat." +Then I would never talk to that person about boa constrictors, or primeval +forests, or stars. I would bring myself down to his level. I would talk to him +about bridge, and golf, and politics, and neckties. And the grown-up would be +greatly pleased to have met such a sensible man. + +6 + +Chapter 2 + +the narrator crashes in the desert and makes the + +acquaintance of the little prince + +So I lived my life alone, without anyone that I could really talk to, until I had an +accident with my plane in the Desert of Sahara, six years ago. Something +was broken in my engine. And as I had with me neither a mechanic nor any +passengers, I set myself to attempt the difficult repairs all alone. It was a +question of life or death for me: I had scarcely enough drinking water to last a +week. +The first night, then, I went to sleep on the sand, a thousand miles from any +human habitation. I was more isolated than a shipwrecked sailor on a raft in +the middle of the ocean. Thus you can imagine my amazement, at sunrise, +when I was awakened by an odd little voice. It said: +"If you please-- draw me a sheep!" +"What!" +"Draw me a sheep!" +I jumped to my feet, completely thunderstruck. I blinked my eyes hard. I +looked carefully all around me. And I saw a most extraordinary small person, +who stood there examining me with great seriousness. Here you may see the +best potrait that, later, I was able to make of him. But my drawing is certainly +very much less charming than its model. + +7 +That, however, is not my fault. The grown-ups discouraged me in my painter's +career when I was six years old, and I never learned to draw anything, except +boas from the outside and boas from the inside. +Now I stared at this sudden apparition with my eyes fairly starting out of my +head in astonishment. Remember, I had crashed in the desert a thousand +miles from any inhabited region. And yet my little man seemed neither to be +straying uncertainly among the sands, nor to be fainting from fatigue or +hunger or thirst or fear. Nothing about him gave any suggestion of a child lost +in the middle of the desert, a thousand miles from any human habitation. +When at last I was able to speak, I said to him: +"But-- what are you doing here?" +And in answer he repeated, very slowly, as if he were speaking of a matter of +great consequence: "If you please-- draw me a sheep..." +When a mystery is too overpowering, one dare not disobey. Absurd as it +might seem to me, a thousand miles from any human habitation and in +danger of death, I took out of my pocket a sheet of paper and my fountain-pen. +But then I remembered how my studies had been concentrated on geography, +history, arithmetic, and grammar, and I told the little chap (a little crossly, too) +that I did not know how to draw. He answered me: +"That doesn't matter. Draw me a sheep..." + +8 +But I had never drawn a sheep. So I drew for him one of the two pictures I had +drawn so often. It was that of the boa constrictor from the outside. And I was +astounded to hear the little fellow greet it with, +"No, no, no! I do not want an elephant inside a boa constrictor. A boa +constrictor is a very dangerous creature, and an elephant is very +cumbersome. Where I live, everything is very small. What I need is a sheep. +Draw me a sheep." +So then I made a drawing. + +He looked at it carefully, then he said: +"No. This sheep is already very sickly. Make me another." +So I made another drawing. + +My friend smiled gently and indulgenty. +"You see yourself," he said, "that this is not a sheep. This is a ram. It has +horns." +So then I did my drawing over once more. + +But it was rejected too, just like the others. + +9 + +"This one is too old. I want a sheep that will live a long time." +By this time my patience was exhausted, because I was in a hurry to start +taking my engine apart. So I tossed off this drawing. + +And I threw out an explanation with it. +"This is only his box. The sheep you asked for is inside." +I was very surprised to see a light break over the face of my young judge: +"That is exactly the way I wanted it! Do you think that this sheep will have to +have a great deal of grass?" +"Why?" +"Because where I live everything is very small..." +"There will surely be enough grass for him," I said. "It is a very small sheep +that I have given you." +He bent his head over the drawing: +"Not so small that-- Look! He has gone to sleep..." +And that is how I made the acquaintance of the little prince. + +10 + +Chapter 3 + +the narrator learns more about from where the little + +prince came + +It took me a long time to learn where he came from. The little prince, who +asked me so many questions, never seemed to hear the ones I asked him. It +was from words dropped by chance that, little by little, everything was +revealed to me. +The first time he saw my airplane, for instance (I shall not draw my airplane; +that would be much too complicated for me), he asked me: +"What is that object?" +"That is not an object. It flies. It is an airplane. It is my airplane." +And I was proud to have him learn that I could fly. +He cried out, then: +"What! You dropped down from the sky?" +"Yes," I answered, modestly. +"Oh! That is funny!" +And the little prince broke into a lovely peal of laughter, which irritated me +very much. I like my misfortunes to be taken seriously. +Then he added: +"So you, too, come from the sky! Which is your planet?" +At that moment I caught a gleam of light in the impenetrable mystery of his +presence; and I demanded, abruptly: +"Do you come from another planet?" +But he did not reply. He tossed his head gently, without taking his eyes from +my plane: +"It is true that on that you can't have come from very far away..." + +11 +And he sank into a reverie, which lasted a long time. Then, taking my sheep +out of his pocket, he buried himself in the contemplation of his treasure. +You can imagine how my curiosity was aroused by this half-confidence about +the "other planets." I made a great effort, therefore, to find out more on this +subject. +"My little man, where do you come from? What is this 'where I live,' of which +you speak? Where do you want to take your sheep?" +After a reflective silence he answered: +"The thing that is so good about the box you have given me is that at night he +can use it as his house." +"That is so. And if you are good I will give you a string, too, so that you can tie +him during the day, and a post to tie him to." +But the little prince seemed shocked by this offer: +"Tie him! What a queer idea!" +"But if you don't tie him," I said, "he will wander off somewhere, and get lost." +My friend broke into another peal of laughter: +"But where do you think he would go?" +"Anywhere. Straight ahead of him." +Then the little prince said, earnestly: +"That doesn't matter. Where I live, everything is so small!" +And, with perhaps a hint of sadness, he added: +"Straight ahead of him, nobody can go very far..." + +12 + +Chapter 4 + +the narrator speculates as to which asteroid from + +which the little prince came + +I had thus learned a second fact of great importance: this was that the planet +the little prince came from was scarcely any larger than a house! +But that did not really surprise me much. I knew very well that in addition to +the great planets-- such as the Earth, Jupiter, Mars, Venus-- to which we +have given names, there are also hundreds of others, some of which are so +small that one has a hard time seeing them through the telescope. When an + +13 +astronomer discovers one of these he does not give it a name, but only a +number. He might call it, for example, "Asteroid 325." + +I have serious reason to believe that the planet from which the little prince +came is the asteroid known as B-612. +This asteroid has only once been seen through the telescope. That was by a +Turkish astronomer, in 1909. + +On making his discovery, the astronomer had presented it to the International +Astronomical Congress, in a great demonstration. But he was in Turkish +costume, and so nobody would believe what he said. +Grown-ups are like that... + +14 +Fortunately, however, for the reputation of Asteroid B-612, a Turkish dictator +made a law that his subjects, under pain of death, should change to +European costume. So in 1920 the astronomer gave his demonstration all +over again, dressed with impressive style and elegance. And this time +everybody accepted his report. +If I have told you these details about the asteroid, and made a note of its +number for you, it is on account of the grown-ups and their ways. When you +tell them that you have made a new friend, they never ask you any questions +about essential matters. They never say to you, "What does his voice sound +like? What games does he love best? Does he collect butterflies?" Instead, +they demand: "How old is he? How many brothers has he? How much does +he weigh? How much money does his father make?" Only from these figures +do they think they have learned anything about him. +If you were to say to the grown-ups: "I saw a beautiful house made of rosy +brick, with geraniums in the windows and doves on the roof," they would not +be able to get any idea of that house at all. You would have to say to them: "I +saw a house that cost $20,000." Then they would exclaim: "Oh, what a pretty +house that is!" +Just so, you might say to them: "The proof that the little prince existed is that +he was charming, that he laughed, and that he was looking for a sheep. If +anybody wants a sheep, that is a proof that he exists." And what good would it +do to tell them that? They would shrug their shoulders, and treat you like a +child. But if you said to them: "The planet he came from is Asteroid B-612," +then they would be convinced, and leave you in peace from their questions. +They are like that. One must not hold it against them. Children should always +show great forbearance toward grown-up people. +But certainly, for us who understand life, figures are a matter of indifference. I +should have liked to begin this story in the fashion of the fairy-tales. I should + +15 +have like to say: "Once upon a time there was a little prince who lived on a +planet that was scarcely any bigger than himself, and who had need of a +sheep..." +To those who understand life, that would have given a much greater air of +truth to my story. +For I do not want any one to read my book carelessly. I have suffered too +much grief in setting down these memories. Six years have already passed +since my friend went away from me, with his sheep. If I try to describe him +here, it is to make sure that I shall not forget him. To forget a friend is sad. Not +every one has had a friend. And if I forget him, I may become like the +grown-ups who are no longer interested in anything but figures... +It is for that purpose, again, that I have bought a box of paints and some +pencils. It is hard to take up drawing again at my age, when I have never +made any pictures except those of the boa constrictor from the outside and +the boa constrictor from the inside, since I was six. I shall certainly try to make +my portraits as true to life as possible. But I am not at all sure of success. One +drawing goes along all right, and another has no resemblance to its subject. I +make some errors, too, in the little prince's height: in one place he is too tall +and in another too short. And I feel some doubts about the color of his +costume. So I fumble along as best I can, now good, now bad, and I hope +generally fair-to-middling. +In certain more important details I shall make mistakes, also. But that is +something that will not be my fault. My friend never explained anything to me. +He thought, perhaps, that I was like himself. But I, alas, do not know how to +see sheep through t he walls of boxes. Perhaps I am a little like the +grown-ups. I have had to grow old. + +16 + +Chapter 5 + +we are warned as to the dangers of the baobabs +As each day passed I would learn, in our talk, something about the little +prince's planet, his departure from it, his journey. The information would come +very slowly, as it might chance to fall from his thoughts. It was in this way that +I heard, on the third day, about the catastrophe of the baobabs. +This time, once more, I had the sheep to thank for it. For the little prince asked +me abruptly-- as if seized by a grave doubt-- "It is true, isn't it, that sheep eat +little bushes?" +"Yes, that is true." +"Ah! I am glad!" +I did not understand why it was so important that sheep should eat little +bushes. But the little prince added: +"Then it follows that they also eat baobabs?" +I pointed out to the little prince that baobabs were not little bushes, but, on the +contrary, trees as big as castles; and that even if he took a whole herd of +elephants away with him, the herd would not eat up one single baobab. + +The idea of the herd of elephants made the little prince laugh. +"We would have to put them one on top of the other," he said. +But he made a wise comment: + +17 + +"Before they grow so big, the baobabs start out by being little." +"That is strictly correct," I said. "But why do you want the sheep to eat the little +baobabs?" +He answered me at once, "Oh, come, come!", as if he were speaking of +something that was self-evident. And I was obliged to make a great mental +effort to solve this problem, without any assistance. +Indeed, as I learned, there were on the planet where the little prince lived-- as +on all planets-- good plants and bad plants. In consequence, there were good +seeds from good plants, and bad seeds from bad plants. But seeds are +invisible. They sleep deep in the heart of the earth's darkness, until some one +among them is seized with the desire to awaken. Then this little seed will +stretch itself and begin-- timidly at first-- to push a charming little sprig +inoffensively upward toward the sun. If it is only a sprout of radish or the sprig +of a rose-bush, one would let it grow wherever it might wish. But when it is a +bad plant, one must destroy it as soon as possible, the very first instant that +one recognizes it. +Now there were some terrible seeds on the planet that was the home of the +little prince; and these were the seeds of the baobab. The soil of that planet +was infested with them. A baobab is something you will never, never be able +to get rid of if you attend to it too late. It spreads over the entire planet. It +bores clear through it with its roots. And if the planet is too small, and the +baobabs are too many, they split it in pieces... + +18 +"It is a question of discipline," the little prince said to me later on. "When +you've finished your own toilet in the morning, then it is time to attend to the +toilet of your planet, just so, with the greatest care. You must see to it that you +pull up regularly all the baobabs, at the very first moment when they can be +distinguished from the rosebushes which they resemble so closely in their +earliest youth. It is very tedious work," the little prince added, "but very easy." +And one day he said to me: "You ought to make a beautiful drawing, so that +the children where you live can see exactly how all this is. That would be very +useful to them if they were to travel some day. Sometimes," he added, "there +is no harm in putting off a piece of work until another day. But when it is a +matter of baobabs, that always means a catastrophe. I knew a planet that +was inhabited by a lazy man. He neglected three little bushes..." + +So, as the little prince described it to me, I have made a drawing of that planet. +I do not much like to take the tone of a moralist. But the danger of the +baobabs is so little understood, and such considerable risks would be run by + +19 +anyone who might get lost on an asteroid, that for once I am breaking through +my reserve. "Children," I say plainly, "watch out for the baobabs!" +My friends, like myself, have been skirting this danger for a long time, without +ever knowing it; and so it is for them that I have worked so hard over this +drawing. The lesson which I pass on by this means is worth all the trouble it +has cost me. +Perhaps you will ask me, "Why are there no other drawing in this book as +magnificent and impressive as this drawing of the baobabs?" +The reply is simple. I have tried. But with the others I have not been +successful. When I made the drawing of the baobabs I was carried beyond +myself by the inspiring force of urgent necessity. + +20 + +Chapter 6 + +the little prince and the narrator talk about sunsets +Oh, little prince! Bit by bit I came to understand the secrets of your sad little +life... For a long time you had found your only entertainment in the quiet +pleasure of looking at the sunset. I learned that new detail on the morning of +the fourth day, w hen you said to me: +"I am very fond of sunsets. Come, let us go look at a sunset now." +"But we must wait," I said. +"Wait? For what?" +"For the sunset. We must wait until it is time." +At first you seemed to be very much surprised. And then you laughed to +yourself. You said to me: +"I am always thinking that I am at home!" +Just so. Everybody knows that when it is noon in the United States the sun is +setting over France. + +If you could fly to France in one minute, you could go straight into the sunset, +right from noon. Unfortunately, France is too far away for that. But on your tiny +planet, my little prince, all you need do is move your chair a few steps. You +can see the day end and the twilight falling whenever you like... +"One day," you said to me, "I saw the sunset forty-four times!" + +21 + +And a little later you added: +"You know-- one loves the sunset, when one is so sad..." +"Were you so sad, then?" I asked, "on the day of the forty-four sunsets?" +But the little prince made no reply. + +22 + +Chapter 7 + +the narrator learns about the secret of the little + +prince's life + +On the fifth day-- again, as always, it was thanks to the sheep-- the secret of +the little prince's life was revealed to me. Abruptly, without anything to lead up +to it, and as if the question had been born of long and silent meditation on his +problem, he demanded: +"A sheep-- if it eats little bushes, does it eat flowers, too?" +"A sheep," I answered, "eats anything it finds in its reach." +"Even flowers that have thorns?" +"Yes, even flowers that have thorns." +"Then the thorns-- what use are they?" +I did not know. At that moment I was very busy trying to unscrew a bolt that +had got stuck in my engine. I was very much worried, for it was becoming +clear to me that the breakdown of my plane was extremely serious. And I had +so little drinking-water left that I had to fear for the worst. +"The thorns-- what use are they?" +The little prince never let go of a question, once he had asked it. As for me, I +was upset over that bolt. And I answered with the first thing that came into my +head: +"The thorns are of no use at all. Flowers have thorns just for spite!" +"Oh!" +There was a moment of complete silence. Then the little prince flashed back +at me, with a kind of resentfulness: +"I don't believe you! Flowers are weak creatures. They are na 飗 e. They +reassure themselves as best they can. They believe that their thorns are +terrible weapons..." + +23 +I did not answer. At that instant I was saying to myself: "If this bolt still won't +turn, I am going to knock it out with the hammer." Again the little prince +disturbed my thoughts. +"And you actually believe that the flowers--" +"Oh, no!" I cried. "No, no no! I don't believe anything. I answered you with the +first thing that came into my head. Don't you see-- I am very busy with matters +of consequence!" +He stared at me, thunderstruck. +"Matters of consequence!" +He looked at me there, with my hammer in my hand, my fingers black with +engine-grease, bending down over an object which seemed to him extremely +ugly... +"You talk just like the grown-ups!" +That made me a little ashamed. But he went on, relentlessly: +"You mix everything up together... You confuse everything..." +He was really very angry. He tossed his golden curls in the breeze. +"I know a planet where there is a certain red-faced gentleman. He has never +smelled a flower. He has never looked at a star. He has never loved any one. +He has never done anything in his life but add up figures. And all day he says +over and over, just like you: 'I am busy with matters of consequence!' And that +makes him swell up with pride. But he is not a man-- he is a mushroom!" +"A what?" +"A mushroom!" +The little prince was now white with rage. +"The flowers have been growing thorns for millions of years. For millions of +years the sheep have been eating them just the same. And is it not a matter +of consequence to try to understand why the flowers go to so much trouble to +grow thorns which are never of any use to them? Is the warfare between the +sheep and the flowers not important? Is this not of more consequence than a +fat red-faced gentleman's sums? And if I know-- I, myself-- one flower which +is unique in the world, which grows nowhere but on my planet, but which one + +24 +little sheep can destroy in a single bite some morning, without even noticing +what he is doing-- Oh! You think that is not important!" +His face turned from white to red as he continued: +"If some one loves a flower, of which just one single blossom grows in all the +millions and millions of stars, it is enough to make him happy just to look at +the stars. He can say to himself, 'Somewhere, my flower is there...' But if the +sheep eats the flower, in one moment all his stars will be darkened... And you +think that is not important!" +He could not say anything more. His words were choked by sobbing. + +The night had fallen. I had let my tools drop from my hands. Of what moment +now was my hammer, my bolt, or thirst, or death? On one star, one planet, my +planet, the Earth, there was a little prince to be comforted. I took him in my +arms, and rocked him. I said to him: +"The flower that you love is not in danger. I will draw you a muzzle for your +sheep. I will draw you a railing to put around your flower. I will--" +I did not know what to say to him. I felt awkward and blundering. I did not +know how I could reach him, where I could overtake him and go on hand in +hand with him once more. +It is such a secret place, the land of tears. + +25 + +Chapter 8 + +the rose arrives at the little prince's planet +I soon learned to know this flower better. On the little prince's planet the +flowers had always been very simple. They had only one ring of petals; they +took up no room at all; they were a trouble to nobody. One morning they +would appear in the grass, and by night they would have faded peacefully +away. But one day, from a seed blown from no one knew where, a new flower +had come up; and the little prince had watched very closely over this small +sprout which was not like any other small sprouts on his planet. It might, you +see, have been a new kind of baobab. +The shrub soon stopped growing, and began to get ready to produce a flower. +The little prince, who was present at the first appearance of a huge bud, felt at +once that some sort of miraculous apparition must emerge from it. But the +flower was not satisfied to complete the preparations for her beauty in the +shelter of her green chamber. She chose her colours with the greatest care. +She adjusted her petals one by one. She did not wish to go out into the world +all rumpled, like the field poppies. It was only in the full radiance of her beauty +that she wished to appear. Oh, yes! She was a coquettish creature! And her +mysterious adornment lasted for days and days. + +Then one morning, exactly at sunrise, she suddenly showed herself. +And, after working with all this painstaking precision, she yawned and said: + +26 +"Ah! I am scarcely awake. I beg that you will excuse me. My petals are still all +disarranged..." +But the little prince could not restrain his admiration: +"Oh! How beautiful you are!" +"Am I not?" the flower responded, sweetly. "And I was born at the same +moment as the sun..." +The little prince could guess easily enough that she was not any too modest-- +but how moving-- and exciting-- she was! +"I think it is time for breakfast," she added an instant later. "If you would have +the kindness to think of my needs--" +And the little prince, completely abashed, went to look for a sprinkling-can of +fresh water. So, he tended the flower. + +So, too, she began very quickly to torment him with her vanity-- which was, if +the truth be known, a little difficult to deal with. One day, for instance, when +she was speaking of her four thorns, she said to the little prince: +"Let the tigers come with their claws!" +"There are no tigers on my planet," the little prince objected. "And, anyway, +tigers do not eat weeds." + +27 + +"I am not a weed," the flower replied, sweetly. +"Please excuse me..." +"I am not at all afraid of tigers," she went on, "but I have a horror of drafts. I +suppose you wouldn't have a screen for me?" +"A horror of drafts-- that is bad luck, for a plant," remarked the little prince, +and added to himself, "This flower is a very complex creature..." +"At night I want you to put me under a glass globe. It is very cold where you +live. In the place I came from--" + +But she interrupted herself at that point. She had come in the form of a seed. +She could not have known anything of any other worlds. Embarassed over +having let herself be caught on the verge of such a na 飗 e untruth, she +coughed two or three times, in order to put the little prince in the wrong. +"The screen?" +"I was just going to look for it when you spoke to me..." + +28 +Then she forced her cough a little more so that he should suffer from remorse +just the same. +So the little prince, in spite of all the good will that was inseparable from his +love, had soon come to doubt her. He had taken seriously words which were +without importance, and it made him very unhappy. +"I ought not to have listened to her," he confided to me one day. "One never +ought to listen to the flowers. One should simply look at them and breathe +their fragrance. Mine perfumed all my planet. But I did not know how to take +pleasure in all her grace. This tale of claws, which disturbed me so much, +should only have filled my heart with tenderness and pity." +And he continued his confidences: +"The fact is that I did not know how to understand anything! I ought to have +judged by deeds and not by words. She cast her fragrance and her radiance +over me. I ought never to have run away from her... I ought to have guessed +all the affection that lay behind her poor little strategems. Flowers are so +inconsistent! But I was too young to know how to love her..." + +29 + +Chapter 9 + +the little prince leaves his planet + +I believe that for his escape he took advantage of the migration of a flock of +wild birds. On the morning of his departure he put his planet in perfect order. +He carefully cleaned out his active volcanoes. He possessed two active +volcanoes; and they were very convenient for heating his breakfast in the +morning. He also had one volcano that was extinct. But, as he said, "One +never knows!" So he cleaned out the extinct volcano, too. If they are well +cleaned out, volcanoes burn slowly and steadily, without any eruptions. +Volcanic eruptions are like fires in a chimney. +On our earth we are obviously much too small to clean out our volcanoes. +That is why they bring no end of trouble upon us. + +The little prince also pulled up, with a certain sense of dejection, the last little +shoots of the baobabs. He believed that he would never want to return. But +on this last morning all these familiar tasks seemed very precious to him. And +when he watered the flower for the last time, and prepared to place her under +the shelter of her glass globe, he realised that he was very close to tears. +"Goodbye," he said to the flower. +But she made no answer. +"Goodbye," he said again. +The flower coughed. But it was not because she had a cold. + +30 +"I have been silly," she said to him, at last. "I ask your forgiveness. Try to be +happy..." +He was surprised by this absence of reproaches. He stood there all +bewildered, the glass globe held arrested in mid-air. He did not understand +this quiet sweetness. +"Of course I love you," the flower said to him. "It is my fault that you have not +known it all the while. That is of no importance. But you-- you have been just +as foolish as I. Try to be happy... let the glass globe be. I don't want it any +more." +"But the wind--" +"My cold is not so bad as all that... the cool night air will do me good. I am a +flower." +"But the animals--" +"Well, I must endure the presence of two or three caterpillars if I wish to +become acquainted with the butterflies. It seems that they are very beautiful. +And if not the butterflies-- and the caterpillars-- who will call upon me? You +will be far away... as for the large animals-- I am not at all afraid of any of +them. I have my claws." +And, na 飗 ely, she showed her four thorns. Then she added: +"Don't linger like this. You have decided to go away. Now go!" +For she did not want him to see her crying. She was such a proud flower... + +31 + +Chapter 10 + +the little prince visits the king + +He found himself in the neighborhood of the asteroids 325, 326, 327, 328, +329, and 330. He began, therefore, by visiting them, in order to add to his +knowledge. +The first of them was inhabited by a king. Clad in royal purple and ermine, he +was seated upon a throne which was at the same time both simple and +majestic. +"Ah! Here is a subject," exclaimed the king, when he saw the little prince +coming. +And the little prince asked himself: +"How could he recognize me when he had never seen me before?" +He did not know how the world is simplified for kings. To them, all men are +subjects. +"Approach, so that I may see you better," said the king, who felt consumingly +proud of being at last a king over somebody. +The little prince looked everywhere to find a place to sit down; but the entire +planet was crammed and obstructed by the king's magnificent ermine robe. +So he remained standing upright, and, since he was tired, he yawned. +"It is contrary to etiquette to yawn in the presence of a king," the monarch said +to him. "I forbid you to do so." +"I can't help it. I can't stop myself," replied the little prince, thoroughly +embarrassed. "I have come on a long journey, and I have had no sleep..." +"Ah, then," the king said. "I order you to yawn. It is years since I have seen +anyone yawning. Yawns, to me, are objects of curiosity. Come, now! Yawn +again! It is an order." +"That frightens me... I cannot, any more..." murmured the little prince, now +completely abashed. +"Hum! Hum!" replied the king. "Then I-- I order you sometimes to yawn and +sometimes to--" + +32 + +He sputtered a little, and seemed vexed. +For what the king fundamentally insisted upon was that his authority should +be respected. He tolerated no disobedience. He was an absolute monarch. +But, because he was a very good man, he made his orders reasonable. +"If I ordered a general," he would say, by way of example, "if I ordered a +general to change himself into a sea bird, and if the general did not obey me, +that would not be the fault of the general. It would be my fault." +"May I sit down?" came now a timid inquiry from the little prince. +"I order you to do so," the king answered him, and majestically gathered in a +fold of his ermine mantle. + +But the little prince was wondering... The planet was tiny. Over what could +this king really rule? +"Sire," he said to him, "I beg that you will excuse my asking you a question--" +"I order you to ask me a question," the king hastened to assure him. +"Sire-- over what do you rule?" +"Over everything," said the king, with magnificent simplicity. + +33 + +"Over everything?" +The king made a gesture, which took in his planet, the other planets, and all +the stars. +"Over all that?" asked the little prince. +"Over all that," the king answered. +For his rule was not only absolute: it was also universal. +"And the stars obey you?" +"Certainly they do," the king said. "They obey instantly. I do not permit +insubordination." +Such power was a thing for the little prince to marvel at. If he had been master +of such complete authority, he would have been able to watch the sunset, not +forty-four times in one day, but seventy-two, or even a hundred, or even two +hundred times, with out ever having to move his chair. And because he felt a +bit sad as he remembered his little planet which he had forsaken, he plucked +up his courage to ask the king a favor: +"I should like to see a sunset... do me that kindness... Order the sun to set..." +"If I ordered a general to fly from one flower to another like a butterfly, or to +write a tragic drama, or to change himself into a sea bird, and if the general +did not carry out the order that he had received, which one of us would be in +the wrong?" the king demanded. "The general, or myself?" +"You," said the little prince firmly. +"Exactly. One much require from each one the duty which each one can +perform," the king went on. "Accepted authority rests first of all on reason. If +you ordered your people to go and throw themselves into the sea, they would +rise up in revolution. I have the right to require obedience because my orders +are reasonable." +"Then my sunset?" the little prince reminded him: for he never forgot a +question once he had asked it. +"You shall have your sunset. I shall command it. But, according to my science +of government, I shall wait until conditions are favorable." +"When will that be?" inquired the little prince. + +34 +"Hum! Hum!" replied the king; and before saying anything else he consulted a +bulky almanac. "Hum! Hum! That will be about-- about-- that will be this +evening about twenty minutes to eight. And you will see how well I am +obeyed." +The little prince yawned. He was regretting his lost sunset. And then, too, he +was already beginning to be a little bored. +"I have nothing more to do here," he said to the king. "So I shall set out on my +way again." +"Do not go," said the king, who was very proud of having a subject. "Do not go. +I will make you a Minister!" +"Minister of what?" +"Minster of-- of Justice!" +"But there is nobody here to judge!" +"We do not know that," the king said to him. "I have not yet made a complete +tour of my kingdom. I am very old. There is no room here for a carriage. And it +tires me to walk." +"Oh, but I have looked already!" said the little prince, turning around to give +one more glance to the other side of the planet. On that side, as on this, there +was nobody at all... +"Then you shall judge yourself," the king answered. "that is the most difficult +thing of all. It is much more difficult to judge oneself than to judge others. If +you succeed in judging yourself rightly, then you are indeed a man of true +wisdom." +"Yes," said the little prince, "but I can judge myself anywhere. I do not need to +live on this planet. +"Hum! Hum!" said the king. "I have good reason to believe that somewhere on +my planet there is an old rat. I hear him at night. You can judge this old rat. +From time to time you will condemn him to death. Thus his life will depend on +your justice. But you will pardon him on each occasion; for he must be treated +thriftily. He is the only one we have." +"I," replied the little prince, "do not like to condemn anyone to death. And now +I think I will go on my way." +"No," said the king. + +35 +But the little prince, having now completed his preparations for departure, had +no wish to grieve the old monarch. +"If Your Majesty wishes to be promptly obeyed," he said, "he should be able +to give me a reasonable order. He should be able, for example, to order me to +be gone by the end of one minute. It seems to me that conditions are +favorable..." +As the king made no answer, the little prince hesitated a moment. Then, with +a sigh, he took his leave. +"I made you my Ambassador," the king called out, hastily. +He had a magnificent air of authority. +"The grown-ups are very strange," the little prince said to himself, as he +continued on his journey. + +36 + +Chapter 11 + +the little prince visits the conceited man + +The second planet was inhabited by a conceited man. +"Ah! Ah! I am about to receive a visit from an admirer!" he exclaimed from afar, +when he first saw the little prince coming. +For, to conceited men, all other men are admirers. + +"Good morning," said the little prince. "That is a queer hat you are wearing." +"It is a hat for salutes," the conceited man replied. "It is to raise in salute when +people acclaim me. Unfortunately, nobody at all ever passes this way." +"Yes?" said the little prince, who did not understand what the conceited man +was talking about. + +37 +"Clap your hands, one against the other," the conceited man now directed +him. +The little prince clapped his hands. The conceited man raised his hat in a +modest salute. +"This is more entertaining than the visit to the king," the little prince said to +himself. And he began again to clap his hands, one against the other. The +conceited man against raised his hat in salute. +After five minutes of this exercise the little prince grew tired of the game's +monotony. +"And what should one do to make the hat come down?" he asked. +But the conceited man did not hear him. Conceited people never hear +anything but praise. +"Do you really admire me very much?" he demanded of the little prince. +"What does that mean-- 'admire'?" +"To admire mean that you regard me as the handsomest, the best-dressed, +the richest, and the most intelligent man on this planet." +"But you are the only man on your planet!" +"Do me this kindness. Admire me just the same." +"I admire you," said the little prince, shrugging his shoulders slightly, "but +what is there in that to interest you so much?" +And the little prince went away. +"The grown-ups are certainly very odd," he said to himself, as he continued +on his journey. + +38 + +Chapter 12 + +the little prince visits the tippler + +The next planet was inhabited by a tippler. This was a very short visit, but it +plunged the little prince into deep dejection. +"What are you doing there?" he said to the tippler, whom he found settled +down in silence before a collection of empty bottles and also a collection of +full bottles. +"I am drinking," replied the tippler, with a lugubrious air. +"Why are you drinking?" demanded the little prince. +"So that I may forget," replied the tippler. +"Forget what?" inquired the little prince, who already was sorry for him. + +"Forget that I am ashamed," the tippler confessed, hanging his head. +"Ashamed of what?" insisted the little prince, who wanted to help him. +"Ashamed of drinking!" The tippler brought his speech to an end, and shut +himself up in an impregnable silence. + +39 + +And the little prince went away, puzzled. +"The grown-ups are certainly very, very odd," he said to himself, as he +continued on his journey. + +40 + +Chapter 13 + +the little prince visits the businessman + +The fourth planet belonged to a businessman. This man was so much +occupied that he did not even raise his head at the little prince's arrival. +"Good morning," the little prince said to him. "Your cigarette has gone out." +"Three and two make five. Five and seven make twelve. Twelve and three +make fifteen. Good morning. Fifteen and seven make twenty-two. Twenty-two +and six make twenty-eight. I haven't time to light it again. Twenty-six and five +make thirty-one. Phew! Then that makes five-hundred-and-one-million, +six-hundred-twenty-two-thousand, seven-hundred-thirty-one." +"Five hundred million what?" asked the little prince. +"Eh? Are you still there? Five-hundred-and-one million-- I can't stop... I have +so much to do! I am concerned with matters of consequence. I don't amuse +myself with balderdash. Two and five make seven..." + +"Five-hundred-and-one million what?" repeated the little prince, who never in +his life had let go of a question once he had asked it. +The businessman raised his head. + +41 +"During the fifty-four years that I have inhabited this planet, I have been +disturbed only three times. The first time was twenty-two years ago, when +some giddy goose fell from goodness knows where. He made the most +frightful noise that resounded all over the place, and I made four mistakes in +my addition. The second time, eleven years ago, I was disturbed by an attack +of rheumatism. I don't get enough exercise. I have no time for loafing. The +third time-- well, this is it! I was saying, then, five -hundred-and-one millions--" +"Millions of what?" +The businessman suddenly realized that there was no hope of being left in +peace until he answered this question. +"Millions of those little objects," he said, "which one sometimes sees in the +sky." +"Flies?" +"Oh, no. Little glittering objects." +"Bees?" +"Oh, no. Little golden objects that set lazy men to idle dreaming. As for me, I +am concerned with matters of consequence. There is no time for idle +dreaming in my life." +"Ah! You mean the stars?" +"Yes, that's it. The stars." +"And what do you do with five-hundred millions of stars?" +"Five-hundred-and-one million, six-hundred-twenty-two thousand, +seven-hundred-thirty-one. I am concerned with matters of consequence: I am +accurate." +"And what do you do with these stars?" +"What do I do with them?" +"Yes." +"Nothing. I own them." +"You own the stars?" + +42 + +"Yes." +"But I have already seen a king who--" +"Kings do not own, they reign over. It is a very different matter." +"And what good does it do you to own the stars?" +"It does me the good of making me rich." +"And what good does it do you to be rich?" +"It makes it possible for me to buy more stars, if any are ever discovered." +"This man," the little prince said to himself, "reasons a little like my poor +tippler..." +Nevertheless, he still had some more questions. +"How is it possible for one to own the stars?" +"To whom do they belong?" the businessman retorted, peevishly. +"I don't know. To nobody." +"Then they belong to me, because I was the first person to think of it." +"Is that all that is necessary?" +"Certainly. When you find a diamond that belongs to nobody, it is yours. +When you discover an island that belongs to nobody, it is yours. When you +get an idea before any one else, you take out a patent on it: it is yours. So +with me: I own the stars, because nobody else before me ever thought of +owning them." +"Yes, that is true," said the little prince. "And what do you do with them?" +"I administer them," replied the businessman. "I count them and recount them. +It is difficult. But I am a man who is naturally interested in matters of +consequence." +The little prince was still not satisfied. +"If I owned a silk scarf," he said, "I could put it around my neck and take it +away with me. If I owned a flower, I could pluck that flower and take it away +with me. But you cannot pluck the stars from heaven..." + +43 + +"No. But I can put them in the bank." +"Whatever does that mean?" +"That means that I write the number of my stars on a little paper. And then I +put this paper in a drawer and lock it with a key." +"And that is all?" +"That is enough," said the businessman. +"It is entertaining," thought the little prince. "It is rather poetic. But it is of no +great consequence." +On matters of consequence, the little prince had ideas which were very +different from those of the grown-ups. +"I myself own a flower," he continued his conversation with the businessman, +"which I water every day. I own three volcanoes, which I clean out every week +(for I also clean out the one that is extinct; one never knows). It is of some use +to my volcanoes, and it is of some use to my flower, that I own them. But you +are of no use to the stars..." +The businessman opened his mouth, but he found nothing to say in answer. +And the little prince went away. +"The grown-ups are certainly altogether extraordinary," he said simply, talking +to himself as he continued on his journey. + +44 + +Chapter 14 + +the little prince visits the lamplighter + +The fifth planet was very strange. It was the smallest of all. There was just +enough room on it for a street lamp and a lamplighter. The little prince was +not able to reach any explanation of the use of a street lamp and a lamplighter, +somewhere in the heavens, on a planet which had no people, and not one +house. But he said to himself, nevertheless: +"It may well be that this man is absurd. But he is not so absurd as the king, +the conceited man, the businessman, and the tippler. For at least his work +has some meaning. When he lights his street lamp, it is as if he brought one +more star to life, or one flower. When he puts out his lamp, he sends the +flower, or the star, to sleep. That is a beautiful occupation. And since it is +beautiful, it is truly useful." + +When he arrived on the planet he respectfully saluted the lamplighter. +"Good morning. Why have you just put out your lamp?" +"Those are the orders," replied the lamplighter. "Good morning." +"What are the orders?" +"The orders are that I put out my lamp. Good evening." +And he lighted his lamp again. + +45 + +"But why have you just lighted it again?" +"Those are the orders," replied the lamplighter. +"I do not understand," said the little prince. +"There is nothing to understand," said the lamplighter. "Orders are orders. +Good morning." +And he put out his lamp. +Then he mopped his forehead with a handkerchief decorated with red +squares. +"I follow a terrible profession. In the old days it was reasonable. I put the lamp +out in the morning, and in the evening I lighted it again. I had the rest of the +day for relaxation and the rest of the night for sleep." +"And the orders have been changed since that time?" +"The orders have not been changed," said the lamplighter. "That is the +tragedy! From year to year the planet has turned more rapidly and the orders +have not been changed!" +"Then what?" asked the little prince. +"Then-- the planet now makes a complete turn every minute, and I no longer +have a single second for repose. Once every minute I have to light my lamp +and put it out!" +"That is very funny! A day lasts only one minute, here where you live!" +"It is not funny at all!" said the lamplighter. "While we have been talking +together a month has gone by." +"A month?" +"Yes, a month. Thirty minutes. Thirty days. Good evening." +And he lighted his lamp again. +As the little prince watched him, he felt that he loved this lamplighter who was +so faithful to his orders. He remembered the sunsets which he himself had +gone to seek, in other days, merely by pulling up his chair; and he wanted to +help his friend. + +46 +"You know," he said, "I can tell you a way you can rest whenever you want +to..." +"I always want to rest," said the lamplighter. +For it is possible for a man to be faithful and lazy at the same time. +The little prince went on with his explanation: +"Your planet is so small that three strides will take you all the way around it. +To be always in the sunshine, you need only walk along rather slowly. When +you want to rest, you will walk-- and the day will last as long as you like." +"That doesn't do me much good," said the lamplighter. "The one thing I love in +life is to sleep." +"Then you're unlucky," said the little prince. +"I am unlucky," said the lamplighter. "Good morning." +And he put out his lamp. +"That man," said the little prince to himself, as he continued farther on his +journey, "that man would be scorned by all the others: by the king, by the +conceited man, by the tippler, by the businessman. Nevertheless he is the +only one of them all who does not seem to me ridiculous. Perhaps that is +because he is thinking of something else besides himself." +He breathed a sigh of regret, and said to himself, again: +"That man is the only one of them all whom I could have made my friend. But +his planet is indeed too small. There is no room on it for two people..." +What the little prince did not dare confess was that he was sorry most of all to +leave this planet, because it was blest every day with 1440 sunsets! + +47 + +Chapter 15 + +the little prince visits the geographer + +The sixth planet was ten times larger than the last one. It was inhabited by an +old gentleman who wrote voluminous books. +"Oh, look! Here is an explorer!" he exclaimed to himself when he saw the little +prince coming. +The little prince sat down on the table and panted a little. He had already +traveled so much and so far! +"Where do you come from?" the old gentleman said to him. +"What is that big book?" said the little prince. "What are you doing?" +"I am a geographer," the old gentleman said to him. +"What is a geographer?" asked the little prince. +"A geographer is a scholar who knows the location of all the seas, rivers, +towns, mountains, and deserts." +"That is very interesting," said the little prince. "Here at last is a man who has +a real profession!" And he cast a look around him at the planet of the +geographer. It was the most magnificent and stately planet that he had ever +seen. + +48 + +"Your planet is very beautiful," he said. "Has it any oceans?" +"I couldn't tell you," said the geographer. +"Ah!" The little prince was disappointed. "Has it any mountains?" +"I couldn't tell you," said the geographer. +"And towns, and rivers, and deserts?" +"I couldn't tell you that, either." +"But you are a geographer!" +"Exactly," the geographer said. "But I am not an explorer. I haven't a single +explorer on my planet. It is not the geographer who goes out to count the +towns, the rivers, the mountains, the seas, the oceans, and the deserts. The +geographer is much too important to go loafing about. He does not leave his +desk. But he receives the explorers in his study. He asks them questions, and +he notes down what they recall of their travels. And if the recollections of any +one among them seem interesting to him, the geographer orders an inquiry +into that explorer's moral character." +"Why is that?" +"Because an explorer who told lies would bring disaster on the books of the +geographer. So would an explorer who drank too much." +"Why is that?" asked the little prince. +"Because intoxicated men see double. Then the geographer would note down +two mountains in a place where there was only one." +"I know some one," said the little prince, "who would make a bad explorer." +"That is possible. Then, when the moral character of the explorer is shown to +be good, an inquiry is ordered into his discovery." +"One goes to see it?" +"No. That would be too complicated. But one requires the explorer to furnish +proofs. For example, if the discovery in question is that of a large mountain, +one requires that large stones be brought back from it." +The geographer was suddenly stirred to excitement. + +49 +"But you-- you come from far away! You are an explorer! You shall describe +your planet to me!" +And, having opened his big register, the geographer sharpened his pencil. +The recitals of explorers are put down first in pencil. One waits until the +explorer has furnished proofs, before putting them down in ink. +"Well?" said the geographer expectantly. +"Oh, where I live," said the little prince, "it is not very interesting. It is all so +small. I have three volcanoes. Two volcanoes are active and the other is +extinct. But one never knows." +"One never knows," said the geographer. +"I have also a flower." +"We do not record flowers," said the geographer. +"Why is that? The flower is the most beautiful thing on my planet!" +"We do not record them," said the geographer, "because they are +ephemeral." +"What does that mean-- 'ephemeral'?" +"Geographies," said the geographer, "are the books which, of all books, are +most concerned with matters of consequence. They never become +old-fashioned. It is very rarely that a mountain changes its position. It is very +rarely that an ocean empties itself of its waters. We write of eternal things." +"But extinct volcanoes may come to life again," the little prince interrupted. +"What does that mean-- 'ephemeral'?" +"Whether volcanoes are extinct or alive, it comes to the same thing for us," +said the geographer. "The thing that matters to us is the mountain. It does not +change." +"But what does that mean-- 'ephemeral'?" repeated the little prince, who +never in his life had let go of a question, once he had asked it. +"It means, 'which is in danger of speedy disappearance.'" +"Is my flower in danger of speedy disappearance?" +"Certainly it is." + +50 +"My flower is ephemeral," the little prince said to himself, "and she has only +four thorns to defend herself against the world. And I have left her on my +planet, all alone!" +That was his first moment of regret. But he took courage once more. +"What place would you advise me to visit now?" he asked. +"The planet Earth," replied the geographer. "It has a good reputation." +And the little prince went away, thinking of his flower. + +51 + +Chapter 16 + +the narrator discusses the Earth's lamplighters + +So then the seventh planet was the Earth. +The Earth is not just an ordinary planet! One can count, there 111 kings (not +forgetting, to be sure, the Negro kings among them), 7000 geographers, +900,000 businessmen, 7,500,000 tipplers, 311,000,000 conceited men-- that +is to say, about 2,000,000,000 grown-ups. +To give you an idea of the size of the Earth, I will tell you that before the +invention of electricity it was necessary to maintain, over the whole of the six +continents, a veritable army of 462,511 lamplighters for the street lamps. +Seen from a slight distance, that would make a splendid spectacle. The +movements of this army would be regulated like those of the ballet in the +opera. First would come the turn of the lamplighters of New Zealand and +Australia. Having set their lamps alight, these would go off to sleep. Next, the +lamplighters of China and Siberia would enter for their steps in the dance, and +then they too would be waved back into the wings. After that would come the +turn of the lamplighters of Russia and the Indies; then those of Africa and +Europe, then those of South America; then those of South America; then +those of North America. And never would they make a mistake in the order of +their entry upon the stage. It would be magnificent. +Only the man who was in charge of the single lamp at the North Pole, and his +colleague who was responsible for the single lamp at the South Pole-- only +these two would live free from toil and care: they would be busy twice a year. + +52 + +Chapter 17 + +the little prince makes the acquaintance of the snake + +When one wishes to play the wit, he sometimes wanders a little from the truth. +I have not been altogether honest in what I have told you about the +lamplighters. And I realize that I run the risk of giving a false idea of our planet +to those who do not k now it. Men occupy a very small place upon the Earth. If +the two billion inhabitants who people its surface were all to stand upright and +somewhat crowded together, as they do for some big public assembly, they +could easily be put into one public square twenty miles long and twenty miles +wide. All humanity could be piled up on a small Pacific islet. +The grown-ups, to be sure, will not believe you when you tell them that. They +imagine that they fill a great deal of space. They fancy themselves as +important as the baobabs. You should advise them, then, to make their own +calculations. They adore fig ures, and that will please them. But do not waste +your time on this extra task. It is unnecessary. You have, I know, confidence +in me. +When the little prince arrived on the Earth, he was very much surprised not to +see any people. He was beginning to be afraid he had come to the wrong +planet, when a coil of gold, the color of the moonlight, flashed across the +sand. + +53 + +"Good evening," said the little prince courteously. +"Good evening," said the snake. +"What planet is this on which I have come down?" asked the little prince. +"This is the Earth; this is Africa," the snake answered. +"Ah! Then there are no people on the Earth?" +"This is the desert. There are no people in the desert. The Earth is large," said +the snake. +The little prince sat down on a stone, and raised his eyes toward the sky. +"I wonder," he said, "whether the stars are set alight in heaven so that one +day each one of us may find his own again... Look at my planet. It is right +there above us. But how far away it is!" + +54 + +"It is beautiful," the snake said. "What has brought you here?" +"I have been having some trouble with a flower," said the little prince. +"Ah!" said the snake. +And they were both silent. +"Where are the men?" the little prince at last took up the conversation again. +"It is a little lonely in the desert..." +"It is also lonely among men," the snake said. +The little prince gazed at him for a long time. +"You are a funny animal," he said at last. "You are no thicker than a finger..." +"But I am more powerful than the finger of a king," said the snake. +The little prince smiled. +"You are not very powerful. You haven't even any feet. You cannot even +travel..." +"I can carry you farther than any ship could take you," said the snake. +He twined himself around the little prince's ankle, like a golden bracelet. +"Whomever I touch, I send back to the earth from whence he came," the +snake spoke again. "But you are innocent and true, and you come from a +star..." +The little prince made no reply. +"You move me to pity-- you are so weak on this Earth made of granite," the +snake said. "I can help you, some day, if you grow too homesick for your own +planet. I can--" +"Oh! I understand you very well," said the little prince. "But why do you always +speak in riddles?" +"I solve them all," said the snake. +And they were both silent. + +55 + +Chapter 18 + +the little prince goes looking for men and meets a + +flower + +The little prince crossed the desert and met with only one flower. It was a +flower with three petals, a flower of no account at all. +"Good morning," said the little prince. +"Good morning," said the flower. +"Where are the men?" the little prince asked, politely. +The flower had once seen a caravan passing. +"Men?" she echoed. "I think there are six or seven of them in existence. I saw +them, several years ago. But one never knows where to find them. The wind +blows them away. They have no roots, and that makes their life very difficult." +"Goodbye," said the little prince. +"Goodbye," said the flower. + +56 + +Chapter 19 + +the little prince climbs a mountain range + +After that, the little prince climbed a high mountain. The only mountains he +had ever known were the three volcanoes, which came up to his knees. And +he used the extinct volcano as a footstool. "From a mountain as high as this +one," he said to himself, "I shall be able to see the whole planet at one glance, +and all the people..." + +But he saw nothing, save peaks of rock that were sharpened like needles. +"Good morning," he said courteously. +"Good morning--Good morning--Good morning," answered the echo. + +57 + +"Who are you?" said the little prince. +"Who are you--Who are you--Who are you?" answered the echo. +"Be my friends. I am all alone," he said. +"I am all alone--all alone--all alone," answered the echo. +"What a queer planet!" he thought. "It is altogether dry, and altogether pointed, +and altogether harsh and forbidding. And the people have no imagination. +They repeat whatever one says to them... On my planet I had a flower; she +always was the first to speak..." + +58 + +Chapter 20 + +the little prince discovers a garden of roses + +But it happened that after walking for a long time through sand, and rocks, +and snow, the little prince at last came upon a road. And all roads lead to the +abodes of men. +"Good morning," he said. + +He was standing before a garden, all a-bloom with roses. +"Good morning," said the roses. +The little prince gazed at them. They all looked like his flower. +"Who are you?" he demanded, thunderstruck. +"We are roses," the roses said. +And he was overcome with sadness. His flower had told him that she was the +only one of her kind in all the universe. And here were five thousand of them, +all alike, in one single garden! +"She would be very much annoyed," he said to himself, "if she should see +that... she would cough most dreadfully, and she would pretend that she was +dying, to avoid being laughed at. And I should be obliged to pretend that I was + +59 +nursing her back to life-- for if I did not do that, to humble myself also, she +would really allow herself to die..." +Then he went on with his reflections: "I thought that I was rich, with a flower +that was unique in all the world; and all I had was a common rose. A common +rose, and three volcanoes that come up to my knees-- and one of them +perhaps extinct forever... that doesn't make me a very great prince..." +And he lay down in the grass and cried. + +60 + +Chapter 21 + +the little prince befriends the fox + +It was then that the fox appeared. +"Good morning," said the fox. +"Good morning," the little prince responded politely, although when he turned +around he saw nothing. +"I am right here," the voice said, "under the apple tree." +"Who are you?" asked the little prince, and added, "You are very pretty to look +at." +"I am a fox," said the fox. +"Come and play with me," proposed the little prince. "I am so unhappy." +"I cannot play with you," the fox said. "I am not tamed." +"Ah! Please excuse me," said the little prince. +But, after some thought, he added: +"What does that mean-- 'tame'?" +"You do not live here," said the fox. "What is it that you are looking for?" +"I am looking for men," said the little prince. "What does that mean-- 'tame'?" +"Men," said the fox. "They have guns, and they hunt. It is very disturbing. +They also raise chickens. These are their only interests. Are you looking for +chickens?" +"No," said the little prince. "I am looking for friends. What does that mean-- +'tame'?" +"It is an act too often neglected," said the fox. It means to establish ties." +"'To establish ties'?" + +61 +"Just that," said the fox. "To me, you are still nothing more than a little boy +who is just like a hundred thousand other little boys. And I have no need of +you. And you, on your part, have no need of me. To you, I am nothing more +than a fox like a hundred thousand other foxes. But if you tame me, then we +shall need each other. To me, you will be unique in all the world. To you, I +shall be unique in all the world..." +"I am beginning to understand," said the little prince. "There is a flower... I +think that she has tamed me..." + +"It is possible," said the fox. "On the Earth one sees all sorts of things." +"Oh, but this is not on the Earth!" said the little prince. +The fox seemed perplexed, and very curious. +"On another planet?" +"Yes." +"Are there hunters on this planet?" +"No." +"Ah, that is interesting! Are there chickens?" +"No." +"Nothing is perfect," sighed the fox. +But he came back to his idea. + +62 +"My life is very monotonous," the fox said. "I hunt chickens; men hunt me. All +the chickens are just alike, and all the men are just alike. And, in +consequence, I am a little bored. But if you tame me, it will be as if the sun +came to shine on my life . I shall know the sound of a step that will be different +from all the others. Other steps send me hurrying back underneath the +ground. Yours will call me, like music, out of my burrow. And then look: you +see the grain-fields down yonder? I do not ea t bread. Wheat is of no use to +me. The wheat fields have nothing to say to me. And that is sad. But you have +hair that is the colour of gold. Think how wonderful that will be when you have +tamed me! The grain, which is also golden, will bring me bac k the thought of +you. And I shall love to listen to the wind in the wheat..." +The fox gazed at the little prince, for a long time. +"Please-- tame me!" he said. +"I want to, very much," the little prince replied. "But I have not much time. I +have friends to discover, and a great many things to understand." +"One only understands the things that one tames," said the fox. "Men have no +more time to understand anything. They buy things all ready made at the +shops. But there is no shop anywhere where one can buy friendship, and so +men have no friends any more. If you want a friend, tame me..." +"What must I do, to tame you?" asked the little prince. +"You must be very patient," replied the fox. "First you will sit down at a little +distance from me-- like that-- in the grass. I shall look at you out of the corner +of my eye, and you will say nothing. Words are the source of +misunderstandings. But you will sit a little closer to me, every day..." + +63 + +The next day the little prince came back. +"It would have been better to come back at the same hour," said the fox. "If, +for example, you come at four o'clock in the afternoon, then at three o'clock I +shall begin to be happy. I shall feel happier and happier as the hour advances. +At four o'clock, I shall already be worrying and jumping about. I shall show +you how happy I am! But if you come at just any time, I shall never know at +what hour my heart is to be ready to greet you... One must observe the proper +rites..." +"What is a rite?" asked the little prince. +"Those also are actions too often neglected," said the fox. "They are what +make one day different from other days, one hour from other hours. There is a +rite, for example, among my hunters. Every Thursday they dance with the +village girls. So Thursday is a wonderful day for me! I can take a walk as far +as the vineyards. But if the hunters danced at just any time, every day would +be like every other day, and I should never have any vacation at all." +So the little prince tamed the fox. And when the hour of his departure drew +near-- +"Ah," said the fox, "I shall cry." + +64 +"It is your own fault," said the little prince. "I never wished you any sort of +harm; but you wanted me to tame you..." +"Yes, that is so," said the fox. +"But now you are going to cry!" said the little prince. +"Yes, that is so," said the fox. +"Then it has done you no good at all!" +"It has done me good," said the fox, "because of the color of the wheat fields." +And then he added: +"Go and look again at the roses. You will understand now that yours is unique +in all the world. Then come back to say goodbye to me, and I will make you a +present of a secret." +The little prince went away, to look again at the roses. +"You are not at all like my rose," he said. "As yet you are nothing. No one has +tamed you, and you have tamed no one. You are like my fox when I first knew +him. He was only a fox like a hundred thousand other foxes. But I have made +him my friend, and now he is unique in all the world." +And the roses were very much embarrassed. +"You are beautiful, but you are empty," he went on. "One could not die for you. +To be sure, an ordinary passerby would think that my rose looked just like +you-- the rose that belongs to me. But in herself alone she is more important +than all the hundreds of you other roses: because it is she that I have watered; +because it is she that I have put under the glass globe; because it is she that I +have sheltered behind the screen; because it is for her that I have killed the +caterpillars (except the two or three that we saved to become butterflies); +because it is she that I have listened to, when she grumbled, or boasted, or +even sometimes when she said nothing. Because she is my rose. +And he went back to meet the fox. +"Goodbye," he said. +"Goodbye," said the fox. "And now here is my secret, a very simple secret: It +is only with the heart that one can see rightly; what is essential is invisible to +the eye." + +65 +"What is essential is invisible to the eye," the little prince repeated, so that he +would be sure to remember. +"It is the time you have wasted for your rose that makes your rose so +important." +"It is the time I have wasted for my rose--" said the little prince, so that he +would be sure to remember. +"Men have forgotten this truth," said the fox. "But you must not forget it. You +become responsible, forever, for what you have tamed. You are responsible +for your rose..." +"I am responsible for my rose," the little prince repeated, so that he would be +sure to remember. + +66 + +Chapter 22 + +the little prince encounters a railway switchman + +"Good morning," said the little prince. +"Good morning," said the railway switchman. +"What do you do here?" the little prince asked. +"I sort out travelers, in bundles of a thousand," said the switchman. "I send off +the trains that carry them; now to the right, now to the left." +And a brilliantly lighted express train shook the switchman's cabin as it rushed +by with a roar like thunder. +"They are in a great hurry," said the little prince. "What are they looking for?" +"Not even the locomotive engineer knows that," said the switchman. +And a second brilliantly lighted express thundered by, in the opposite +direction. +"Are they coming back already?" demanded the little prince. +"These are not the same ones," said the switchman. "It is an exchange." +"Were they not satisfied where they were?" asked the little prince. +"No one is ever satisfied where he is," said the switchman. +And they heard the roaring thunder of a third brilliantly lighted express. +"Are they pursuing the first travelers?" demanded the little prince. +"They are pursuing nothing at all," said the switchman. "They are asleep in +there, or if they are not asleep they are yawning. Only the children are +flattening their noses against the windowpanes." +"Only the children know what they are looking for," said the little prince. "They +waste their time over a rag doll and it becomes very important to them; and if +anybody takes it away from them, they cry..." + +67 + +"They are lucky," the switchman said. + +68 + +Chapter 23 + +the little prince encounters a merchant + +"Good morning," said the little prince. +"Good morning," said the merchant. +This was a merchant who sold pills that had been invented to quench thirst. +You need only swallow one pill a week, and you would feel no need of +anything to drink. +"Why are you selling those?" asked the little prince. +"Because they save a tremendous amount of time," said the merchant. +"Computations have been made by experts. With these pills, you save +fifty-three minutes in every week." +"And what do I do with those fifty-three minutes?" +"Anything you like..." +"As for me," said the little prince to himself, "if I had fifty-three minutes to +spend as I liked, I should walk at my leisure toward a spring of fresh water." + +69 + +Chapter 24 + +the narrator and the little prince, thirsty, hunt for a + +well in the desert + +It was now the eighth day since I had had my accident in the desert, and I had +listened to the story of the merchant as I was drinking the last drop of my +water supply. +"Ah," I said to the little prince, "these memories of yours are very charming; +but I have not yet succeeded in repairing my plane; I have nothing more to +drink; and I, too, should be very happy if I could walk at my leisure toward a +spring of fresh water!" +"My friend the fox--" the little prince said to me. +"My dear little man, this is no longer a matter that has anything to do with the +fox!" +"Why not?" +"Because I am about to die of thirst..." +He did not follow my reasoning, and he answered me: +"It is a good thing to have had a friend, even if one is about to die. I, for +instance, am very glad to have had a fox as a friend..." +"He has no way of guessing the danger," I said to myself. "He has never been +either hungry or thirsty. A little sunshine is all he needs..." +But he looked at me steadily, and replied to my thought: +"I am thirsty, too. Let us look for a well..." +I made a gesture of weariness. It is absurd to look for a well, at random, in the +immensity of the desert. But nevertheless we started walking. +When we had trudged along for several hours, in silence, the darkness fell, +and the stars began to come out. Thirst had made me a little feverish, and I +looked at them as if I were in a dream. The little prince's last words came +reeling back into my memory: + +70 + +"Then you are thirsty, too?" I demanded. +But he did not reply to my question. He merely said to me: +"Water may also be good for the heart..." +I did not understand this answer, but I said nothing. I knew very well that it +was impossible to cross-examine him. +He was tired. He sat down. I sat down beside him. And, after a little silence, +he spoke again: +"The stars are beautiful, because of a flower that cannot be seen." +I replied, "Yes, that is so." And, without saying anything more, I looked across +the ridges of sand that were stretched out before us in the moonlight. +"The desert is beautiful," the little prince added. +And that was true. I have always loved the desert. One sits down on a desert +sand dune, sees nothing, hears nothing. Yet through the silence something +throbs, and gleams... +"What makes the desert beautiful," said the little prince, "is that somewhere it +hides a well..." +I was astonished by a sudden understanding of that mysterious radiation of +the sands. When I was a little boy I lived in an old house, and legend told us +that a treasure was buried there. To be sure, no one had ever known how to +find it; perhaps no one had ever even looked for it. But it cast an enchantment +over that house. My home was hiding a secret in the depths of its heart... +"Yes," I said to the little prince. "The house, the stars, the desert-- what gives +them their beauty is something that is invisible!" +"I am glad," he said, "that you agree with my fox." +As the little prince dropped off to sleep, I took him in my arms and set out +walking once more. I felt deeply moved, and stirred. It seemed to me that I +was carrying a very fragile treasure. It seemed to me, even, that there was +nothing more fragile on all Earth. In the moonlight I looked at his pale +forehead, his closed eyes, his locks of hair that trembled in the wind, and I +said to myself: "What I see here is nothing but a shell. What is most important +is invisible..." + +71 +As his lips opened slightly with the suspicious of a half-smile, I said to myself, +again: "What moves me so deeply, about this little prince who is sleeping here, +is his loyalty to a flower-- the image of a rose that shines through his whole +being like the flame of a lamp, even when he is asleep..." And I felt him to be +more fragile still. I felt the need of protecting him, as if he himself were a flame +that might be extinguished by a little puff of wind... +And, as I walked on so, I found the well, at daybreak. + +72 + +Chapter 25 + +finding a well, the narrator and the little prince + +discuss his return to his planet + +"Men," said the little prince, "set out on their way in express trains, but they do +not know what they are looking for. Then they rush about, and get excited, +and turn round and round..." +And he added: +"It is not worth the trouble..." +The well that we had come to was not like the wells of the Sahara. The wells +of the Sahara are mere holes dug in the sand. This one was like a well in a +village. But there was no village here, and I thought I must be dreaming... +"It is strange," I said to the little prince. "Everything is ready for use: the pulley, +the bucket, the rope..." + +He laughed, touched the rope, and set the pulley to working. And the pulley +moaned, like an old weathervane which the wind has long since forgotten. + +73 +"Do you hear?" said the little prince. "We have wakened the well, and it is +singing..." +I did not want him to tire himself with the rope. +"Leave it to me," I said. "It is too heavy for you." +I hoisted the bucket slowly to the edge of the well and set it there-- happy, +tired as I was, over my achievement. The song of the pulley was still in my +ears, and I could see the sunlight shimmer in the still trembling water. +"I am thirsty for this water," said the little prince. "Give me some of it to +drink..." +And I understood what he had been looking for. +I raised the bucket to his lips. He drank, his eyes closed. It was as sweet as +some special festival treat. This water was indeed a different thing from +ordinary nourishment. Its sweetness was born of the walk under the stars, the +song of the pulley, the effort of my arms. It was good for the heart, like a +present. When I was a little boy, the lights of the Christmas tree, the music of +the Midnight Mass, the tenderness of smiling faces, used to make up, so, the +radiance of the gifts I received. +"The men where you live," said the little prince, "raise five thousand roses in +the same garden-- and they do not find in it what they are looking for." +"They do not find it," I replied. +"And yet what they are looking for could be found in one single rose, or in a +little water." +"Yes, that is true," I said. +And the little prince added: +"But the eyes are blind. One must look with the heart..." +I had drunk the water. I breathed easily. At sunrise the sand is the color of +honey. And that honey color was making me happy, too. What brought me, +then, this sense of grief? +"You must keep your promise," said the little prince, softly, as he sat down +beside me once more. +"What promise?" + +74 +"You know-- a muzzle for my sheep... I am responsible for this flower..." +I took my rough drafts of drawings out of my pocket. The little prince looked +them over, and laughed as he said: +"Your baobabs-- they look a little like cabbages." +"Oh!" +I had been so proud of my baobabs! +"Your fox-- his ears look a little like horns; and they are too long." +And he laughed again. +"You are not fair, little prince," I said. "I don't know how to draw anything +except boa constrictors from the outside and boa constrictors from the +inside." +"Oh, that will be all right," he said, "children understand." +So then I made a pencil sketch of a muzzle. And as I gave it to him my heart +was torn. +"You have plans that I do not know about," I said. +But he did not answer me. He said to me, instead: +"You know-- my descent to the earth... Tomorrow will be its anniversary." +Then, after a silence, he went on: +"I came down very near here." +And he flushed. +And once again, without understanding why, I had a queer sense of sorrow. +One question, however, occurred to me: +"Then it was not by chance that on the morning when I first met you-- a week +ago-- you were strolling along like that, all alone, a thousand miles from any +inhabited region? You were on the your back to the place where you landed?" +The little prince flushed again. +And I added, with some hesitancy: + +75 + +"Perhaps it was because of the anniversary?" +The little prince flushed once more. He never answered questions-- but when +one flushes does that not mean "Yes"? +"Ah," I said to him, "I am a little frightened--" +But he interrupted me. +"Now you must work. You must return to your engine. I will be waiting for you +here. Come back tomorrow evening..." +But I was not reassured. I remembered the fox. One runs the risk of weeping +a little, if one lets himself be tamed... + +76 + +Chapter 26 + +the little prince converses with the snake; the little +prince consoles the narrator; the little prince returns + +to his planet + +Beside the well there was the ruin of an old stone wall. When I came back +from my work, the next evening, I saw from some distance away my little price +sitting on top of a wall, with his feet dangling. And I heard him say: +"Then you don't remember. This is not the exact spot." +Another voice must have answered him, for he replied to it: +"Yes, yes! It is the right day, but this is not the place." +I continued my walk toward the wall. At no time did I see or hear anyone. The +little prince, however, replied once again: +"--Exactly. You will see where my track begins, in the sand. You have nothing +to do but wait for me there. I shall be there tonight." +I was only twenty metres from the wall, and I still saw nothing. +After a silence the little prince spoke again: +"You have good poison? You are sure that it will not make me suffer too +long?" +I stopped in my tracks, my heart torn asunder; but still I did not understand. +"Now go away," said the little prince. "I want to get down from the wall." + +77 +I dropped my eyes, then, to the foot of the wall-- and I leaped into the air. +There before me, facing the little prince, was one of those yellow snakes that +take just thirty seconds to bring your life to an end. Even as I was digging into +my pocked to get out my revolver I made a running step back. But, at the +noise I made, the snake let himself flow easily across the sand like the dying +spray of a fountain, and, in no apparent hurry, disappeared, with a light +metallic sound, among the stones. +I reached the wall just in time to catch my little man in my arms; his face was +white as snow. +"What does this mean?" I demanded. "Why are you talking with snakes?" +I had loosened the golden muffler that he always wore. I had moistened his +temples, and had given him some water to drink. And now I did not dare ask +him any more questions. He looked at me very gravely, and put his arms +around my neck. I felt his heart beating like the heart of a dying bird, shot with +someone's rifle... +"I am glad that you have found what was the matter with your engine," he said. +"Now you can go back home--" +"How do you know about that?" + +78 +I was just coming to tell him that my work had been successful, beyond +anything that I had dared to hope. +He made no answer to my question, but he added: +"I, too, am going back home today..." +Then, sadly-- +"It is much farther... it is much more difficult..." +I realized clearly that something extraordinary was happening. I was holding +him close in my arms as if he were a little child; and yet it seemed to me that +he was rushing headlong toward an abyss from which I could do nothing to +restrain him... +His look was very serious, like some one lost far away. +"I have your sheep. And I have the sheep's box. And I have the muzzle..." +And he gave me a sad smile. +I waited a long time. I could see that he was reviving little by little. +"Dear little man," I said to him, "you are afraid..." +He was afraid, there was no doubt about that. But he laughed lightly. +"I shall be much more afraid this evening..." +Once again I felt myself frozen by the sense of something irreparable. And I +knew that I could not bear the thought of never hearing that laughter any +more. For me, it was like a spring of fresh water in the desert. +"Little man," I said, "I want to hear you laugh again." +But he said to me: +"Tonight, it will be a year... my star, then, can be found right above the place +where I came to the Earth, a year ago..." +"Little man," I said, "tell me that it is only a bad dream-- this affair of the snake, +and the meeting-place, and the star..." +But he did not answer my plea. He said to me, instead: "The thing that is +important is the thing that is not seen..." + +79 + +"Yes, I know..." +"It is just as it is with the flower. If you love a flower that lives on a star, it is +sweet to look at the sky at night. All the stars are a-bloom with flowers..." +"Yes, I know..." +"It is just as it is with the water. Because of the pulley, and the rope, what you +gave me to drink was like music. You remember-- how good it was." +"Yes, I know..." +"And at night you will look up at the stars. Where I live everything is so small +that I cannot show you where my star is to be found. It is better, like that. My +star will just be one of the stars, for you. And so you will love to watch all the +stars in the heavens... they will all be your friends. And, besides, I am going to +make you a present..." +He laughed again. +"Ah, little prince, dear little prince! I love to hear that laughter!" +"That is my present. Just that. It will be as it was when we drank the water..." +"What are you trying to say?" +"All men have the stars," he answered, "but they are not the same things for +different people. For some, who are travelers, the stars are guides. For others +they are no more than little lights in the sky. For others, who are scholars, +they are problems . For my businessman they were wealth. But all these stars +are silent. You-- you alone-- will have the stars as no one else has them--" +"What are you trying to say?" +"In one of the stars I shall be living. In one of them I shall be laughing. And so +it will be as if all the stars were laughing, when you look at the sky at night... +you-- only you-- will have stars that can laugh!" +And he laughed again. +"And when your sorrow is comforted (time soothes all sorrows) you will be +content that you have known me. You will always be my friend. You will want +to laugh with me. And you will sometimes open your window, so, for that +pleasure... and your friends w ill be properly astonished to see you laughing +as you look up at the sky! Then you will say to them, 'Yes, the stars always + +80 +make me laugh!' And they will think you are crazy. It will be a very shabby +trick that I shall have played on you..." +And he laughed again. +"It will be as if, in place of the stars, I had given you a great number of little +bells that knew how to laugh..." +And he laughed again. Then he quickly became serious: +"Tonight-- you know... do not come," said the little prince. +"I shall not leave you," I said. +"I shall look as if I were suffering. I shall look a little as if I were dying. It is like +that. Do not come to see that. It is not worth the trouble..." +"I shall not leave you." +But he was worried. +"I tell you-- it is also because of the snake. He must not bite you. Snakes-- +they are malicious creatures. This one might bite you just for fun..." +"I shall not leave you." +But a thought came to reassure him: +"It is true that they have no more poison for a second bite." + +81 +That night I did not see him set out on his way. He got away from me without +making a sound. When I succeeded in catching up with him he was walking +along with a quick and resolute step. He said to me merely: +"Ah! You are there..." +And he took me by the hand. But he was still worrying. +"It was wrong of you to come. You will suffer. I shall look as if I were dead; +and that will not be true..." +I said nothing. +"You understand... it is too far. I cannot carry this body with me. It is too +heavy." +I said nothing. +"But it will be like an old abandoned shell. There is nothing sad about old +shells..." +I said nothing. +He was a little discouraged. But he made one more effort: +"You know, it will be very nice. I, too, shall look at the stars. All the stars will +be wells with a rusty pulley. All the stars will pour out fresh water for me to +drink..." +I said nothing. +"That will be so amusing! You will have five hundred million little bells, and I +shall have five hundred million springs of fresh water..." +And he too said nothing more, because he was crying... +"Here it is. Let me go on by myself." + +82 + +And he sat down, because he was afraid. Then he said, again: +"You know-- my flower... I am responsible for her. And she is so weak! She is +so naive! She has four thorns, of no use at all, to protect herself against all the +world..." +I too sat down, because I was not able to stand up any longer. +"There now-- that is all..." +He still hesitated a little; then he got up. He took one step. I could not move. +There was nothing but a flash of yellow close to his ankle. He remained +motionless for an instant. He did not cry out. He fell as gently as a tree falls. +There was not even any sound, because of the sand. + +83 + +84 + +Chapter 27 + +the narrator's afterthoughts + +And now six years have already gone by... +I have never yet told this story. The companions who met me on my return +were well content to see me alive. I was sad, but I told them: "I am tired." +Now my sorrow is comforted a little. That is to say-- not entirely. But I know +that he did go back to his planet, because I did not find his body at daybreak. +It was not such a heavy body... and at night I love to listen to the stars. It is +like five hundred million little bells... +But there is one extraordinary thing... when I drew the muzzle for the little +prince, I forgot to add the leather strap to it. He will never have been able to +fasten it on his sheep. So now I keep wondering: what is happening on his +planet? Perhaps the sheep has eaten the flower... +At one time I say to myself: "Surely not! The little prince shuts his flower under +her glass globe every night, and he watches over his sheep very carefully..." +Then I am happy. And there is sweetness in the laughter of all the stars. +But at another time I say to myself: "At some moment or other one is +absent-minded, and that is enough! On some one evening he forgot the glass +globe, or the sheep got out, without making any noise, in the night..." And +then the little bells are changed to tears... +Here, then, is a great mystery. For you who also love the little prince, and for +me, nothing in the universe can be the same if somewhere, we do not know +where, a sheep that we never saw has-- yes or no?-- eaten a rose... +Look up at the sky. Ask yourselves: is it yes or no? Has the sheep eaten the +flower? And you will see how everything changes... +And no grown-up will ever understand that this is a matter of so much +importance! + +85 +This is, to me, the loveliest and saddest landscape in the world. It is the same +as that on the preceding page, but I have drawn it again to impress it on your +memory. It is here that the little prince appeared on Earth, and disappeared. +Look at it carefully so that you will be sure to recognise it in case you travel +some day to the African desert. And, if you should come upon this spot, +please do not hurry on. Wait for a time, exactly under the star. Then, if a little +man appears who laughs, who has golden hair and who refuses to answer +questions, you will know who he is. If this should happen, please comfort me. +Send me word that he has come back. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/gpl_2.txt b/data/gpl_2.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..95e19e1 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/gpl_2.txt @@ -0,0 +1,116 @@ +Everyone is permitted to copy and distribute verbatim copies +of this license document, but changing it is not allowed. + +Preamble + +The licenses for most software are designed to take away your freedom to share and change it. By contrast, the GNU General Public License is intended to guarantee your freedom to share and change free software--to make sure the software is free for all its users. This General Public License applies to most of the Free Software Foundation's software and to any other program whose authors commit to using it. (Some other Free Software Foundation software is covered by the GNU Lesser General Public License instead.) You can apply it to your programs, too. + +When we speak of free software, we are referring to freedom, not price. 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See the +GNU General Public License for more details. + +You should have received a copy of the GNU General Public License +along with this program; if not, see + +Also add information on how to contact you by electronic and paper mail. + +If the program is interactive, make it output a short notice like this when it starts in an interactive mode: + +Gnomovision version 69, Copyright (C) year name of author +Gnomovision comes with ABSOLUTELY NO WARRANTY; for details +type `show w'. This is free software, and you are welcome +to redistribute it under certain conditions; type `show c' +for details. + +The hypothetical commands `show w' and `show c' should show the appropriate parts of the General Public License. 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By contrast, the GNU General Public License is intended to guarantee your freedom to share and change all versions of a program--to make sure it remains free software for all its users. We, the Free Software Foundation, use the GNU General Public License for most of our software; it applies also to any other work released this way by its authors. You can apply it to your programs, too. + +When we speak of free software, we are referring to freedom, not price. Our General Public Licenses are designed to make sure that you have the freedom to distribute copies of free software (and charge for them if you wish), that you receive source code or can get it if you want it, that you can change the software or use pieces of it in new free programs, and that you know you can do these things. + +To protect your rights, we need to prevent others from denying you these rights or asking you to surrender the rights. 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If not, see + +Also add information on how to contact you by electronic and paper mail. + +If the program does terminal interaction, make it output a short notice like this when it starts in an interactive mode: + + Copyright (C) + This program comes with ABSOLUTELY NO WARRANTY; for details type `show w'. + This is free software, and you are welcome to redistribute it + under certain conditions; type `show c' for details. + +The hypothetical commands `show w' and `show c' should show the appropriate parts of the General Public License. Of course, your program's commands might be different; for a GUI interface, you would use an “about box”. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/kurzgesagt_aliens.txt b/data/kurzgesagt_aliens.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..e8bb19f --- /dev/null +++ b/data/kurzgesagt_aliens.txt @@ -0,0 +1,70 @@ +Significance + +Our understanding of life on exoplanets and exomoons must be based on what we know about life on Earth. Liquid water is the common ecological requirement for Earth life. Temperature on an exoplanet is the first parameter to consider both because of its influence on liquid water and because it can be directly estimated from orbital and climate models of exoplanetary systems. Life needs some water, but deserts show that even a little can be enough. Only a small amount of light from the central star is required to provide for photosynthesis. Some nitrogen must be present for life and the presence of oxygen would be a good indicator of photosynthesis and possibly complex life. +Abstract + +The requirements for life on Earth, its elemental composition, and its environmental limits provide a way to assess the habitability of exoplanets. Temperature is key both because of its influence on liquid water and because it can be directly estimated from orbital and climate models of exoplanetary systems. Life can grow and reproduce at temperatures as low as −15 °C, and as high as 122 °C. Studies of life in extreme deserts show that on a dry world, even a small amount of rain, fog, snow, and even atmospheric humidity can be adequate for photosynthetic production producing a small but detectable microbial community. Life is able to use light at levels less than 10−5 of the solar flux at Earth. UV or ionizing radiation can be tolerated by many microorganisms at very high levels and is unlikely to be life limiting on an exoplanet. Biologically available nitrogen may limit habitability. Levels of O2 over a few percent on an exoplanet would be consistent with the presence of multicellular organisms and high levels of O2 on Earth-like worlds indicate oxygenic photosynthesis. Other factors such as pH and salinity are likely to vary and not limit life over an entire planet or moon. + +The list of exoplanets is increasing rapidly with a diversity of masses, orbital distances, and star types. The long list motivates us to consider which of these worlds could support life and what type of life could live there. The only approach to answering these questions is based on observations of life on Earth. Compared with astronomical targets, life on Earth is easily studied and our knowledge of it is extensive––but it is not complete. The most important area in which we lack knowledge about life on Earth is its origin. We have no consensus theory for the origin of life nor do we know the timing or location (1). What we do know about life on Earth is what it is made of, and we know its ecological requirements and limits. Thus, it is not surprising that most of the discussions related to life on exoplanets focus on the requirements for life rather than its origin. In this paper we follow this same approach but later return briefly to the question of the origin of life. +Limits to Life + +There are two somewhat different approaches to the question of the limits of life. The first approach is to determine the requirements for life. The second approach is to determine the extreme environments in which adapted organisms—often referred to as extremophiles—can survive. Both perspectives are relevant to the question of life on exoplanets. + +It is useful to categorize the requirements for life on Earth as four items: energy, carbon, liquid water, and various other elements. These are listed in Table 1 along with the occurrence of these factors in the Solar System (2). In our Solar System it is the occurrence of liquid water that appears to limit the occurrence of habitable environments and this appears to be the case for exoplanetary systems as well. + +From basic thermodynamic considerations it is clear that life requires a source of energy. To power metabolism and growth, life on Earth uses only one energy source: that associated with the transfer of electrons by chemical reactions of reduction and oxidation. For example, methane-producing microbes use the reaction of CO2 with H2 to produce CH4. Photosynthetic organisms use a light-absorbing protein, such as chlorophyll, bacteriochlorophylls, and bacteriorhodopsin, to convert photon energy to the energy of an electron which then completes a redox reaction. The electrons from the redox reaction are used to create an electrochemical gradient across cell membranes (3). This occurs in the mitochondria in of most eukaryotes and in the cell membrane of prokaryotic cells. It has recently been shown that electrons provided directly as electrical current can also drive microbial metabolism (4). Although life can detect and generate other energy sources including magnetic, kinetic, gravitational, thermal gradient, and electrostatic, none of these is used for metabolic energy. + +Carbon has the dominant role as the backbone molecule of biochemistry for Earth life and is widespread in the Solar System. However, the abundance of carbon may not be a useful indication of the habitability of an exoplanet. This is illustrated in Fig. 1, which shows that the Earth is significantly depleted in carbon compared with the outer Solar System. The vast majority of the carbon on Earth is stored in sedimentary rocks within the crust. However, because light carbon-containing molecules are volatile––CO2, CO, and CH4––adequate carbon is present at the surface of the Earth, as well as Mars and Venus. + +leading candidates for the status of required elements. Table 2, adapted from Davies and Koch (5), lists the distribution of elements in the cosmos and on the Earth and compares these with the common elements in life––represented by humans and the bacterium Escherichia coli. If liquid water and biologically available nitrogen are present, then phosphorous, potassium, sodium, sulfur, and calcium might come next on a requirements list, as these are the next most abundant elements in bacteria. However, there is no definitive list and any list would depend on the organism considered; for example habitability for methanogens requires high nickel levels (6). In a strict sense habitability can only be confirmed by showing inhabitation; no list is conclusive. Of these secondary elements N is probably the one most likely to be in question on an exoplanet, as is discussed below. Sulfur and phosphorous and virtually all of the rest of the elements listed by Davies and Koch (5) as used in life have major refractory phases at the temperatures of liquid water and should be available if water and rock interact. + +The second approach to the requirements for life is that based on the abilities of extremophiles in a range of environmental factors. Table 3 lists the limits of life under extreme conditions. Our understanding of the requirements for life listed in Table 1 has not changed for many years. In contrast, the limits of life listed in Table 3 have changed in several significant ways over the past few decades. If one compares a list of the limits of life from a few decades ago (7) with Table 3, the most notable change is in the high-temperature limit. This has been raised from 80 °C to 122 °C (8). There has been considerable discussion on the limits of life and their application to the search for life on other worlds (9–11) and it has been realized that the limits vary when organisms face multiple extreme conditions at the same time + +Whereas the limits of life have changed in some ways over the past few decades, there has been a more radical change in our appreciation of where microbial ecosystems can be found. Notable examples of the discovery of unexpected microbial ecosystems include endolithic microorganisms in the Antarctic cold desert (13), hot deep-sea vents (14), cool deep-sea vents (15), deep in basalt (16), deep below the subsurface (17), and in an ice-covered Antarctic lake that has been sealed for thousands of years (18). Several aspects of these recently discovered ecosystems are worth comment: first, the organisms found are not alien and map in expected areas of the tree of life; second, with the exception of the high-temperature vents, the organisms do not greatly extend the limits of life derived from more mundane and accessible ecosystems; third, the organisms themselves do not find these unusual environments extreme and typically are well adapted to the conditions under which they live; and fourth, the organisms in these environments do not in general control the physical environment (temperature and pressure) with their own metabolic activity but rather live in locations where the local physical conditions are suitable even when these environments are nestled within larger inhospitable areas. The lesson to be learned from these discoveries is that microbial life is extremely adept at locating places to live, and we have not been adept at anticipating how small environments can be habitable in otherwise barren locations: microbial life is more clever than we are. This is a factor that should inform our consideration of habitability of exoplanets. +Strategy for Exoplanets + +Given the general requirements for life (Table 1), the elemental composition of life (Table 2), and the environmental limits for life (Table 3), we can consider how to assess the habitability of the environment on an exoplanet. It may seem logical to focus on primary production because without that there cannot be an ecosystem. However, it is possible that photochemical processes in an exoplanet atmosphere play the role of primary production as has been suggested for Titan (19). Many of the limits to life in Table 3 such as pH and salinity are unlikely to be extreme over an entire world. As on Earth they would shape the distribution of life on a world but not its possible occurrence and are therefore not considered further. The key parameters that could be extreme over an entire world and the order in which they may limit any life on an exoplanet are listed in + +he most important parameter for Earth-like life is the presence of liquid water, which directly depends on pressure and temperature. Temperature is key both because of its influence on liquid water and because it can be directly estimated from orbital and climate models of exoplanetary systems. We can consider the cold and hot limits. +Temperature, Cold Limit. + +Many organisms can grow and reproduce at temperatures well below the freezing point of pure water because their intracellular material contains salts and other solutes that lower the freezing point of the solution. Recently, Mykytczuk et al. (20) reported an isolate from Arctic permafrost that grows and divides at −15 °C, the lowest temperature demonstrated to date, and is metabolically active at −25 °C in frozen soils. Thin films of water at the interface between ice and soil grains, augmented by any solutes, provide adequate water for life at these low temperatures (20, 21). The snow algae Chlamydomonas nivalis thrives in liquid water associated with snow, coloring it red, but the algae are the beneficiaries of external processes that melt the snow (22, 23). Microbial activity can generate sufficient heat in permafrost soils (and landfills and composts) such that it is a major contributor to melting (24, 25), but there is no known occurrence of an organism using metabolic energy coupled directly, e.g., through enzymes, to overcome the latent heat of fusion of ice thereby liquefying it. +Temperature, Hot Limit. + +Many of the exoplanets discovered to date have high surface temperatures and hence the high-temperature limit of life is of particular interest. Takai et al. (8) showed growth, survival, and methane production by a methanogen at 122 °C where the high pressure (20 MPa, ∼200 atmospheres) stabilized the liquid water. At higher pressure water can be liquid at even higher temperatures. However, as water is heated and maintained as a liquid under pressure, the dielectric constant and the polarity of the liquid decreases sharply, thus significantly changing its characteristics as a solvent and its interaction with dissolved biomolecules, in particular lipids, but also proteins and nucleic acids. At 200 °C the dielectric constant is about half of the room temperature value (26). It is likely that the destabilization of lipid bilayers as they become soluble in the lower dielectric constant water is what sets the high-temperature limit on life. It is therefore perhaps not surprising that the organisms that can survive the highest temperatures are archaea (8, 27), as their membrane lipids are held together with ether bonds, which are chemically more resistant than ester bonds, which are used in the membranes of nonarchaea. Denaturing of proteins with temperature appears also to play a role (28). Hot water in contact with rocks can be efficient in generating or recycling redox couples––this has been suggested for the interior of Enceladus (29). Such ecosystems provide a compelling example of possible life below the ocean of an exoplanet or exomoon and can even be productive enough to support multicellular life––in the presence of an O2-rich environment. Fig. 2 shows a crab at the Lost City hydrothermal vent. + +Water, Dry Limit. + +On worlds where the temperature is within the range discussed above, life may be limited by the availability of water; Mars is an example of this. Thus, the dry limit of life is of interest. In dry environments phototrophs seek shelter and water retained in, and below, rocks. Fig. 3 shows photosynthetic cyanobacteria and lichens from several dry deserts. Fig. 3A shows endolithic cyanobacteria which live just below the surface of halite rocks in the dry core of the Atacama Desert (30). The water to support their growth comes from absorption of atmospheric moisture by the deliquescence of the salt (31). Fig. 3B shows the green biofilm of cyanobacteria that live beneath translucent rocks in many deserts surviving on as little as a few days of rain or fog each year (32–34). The example shown is from an unusual carbonate rock from the Mojave Desert that is clear inside but covered with a red coating (35, 36). Fig. 3C shows lichen forming a green and black layer inside sandstone from the Dry Valleys of Antarctica, which obtain water from melting of occasional snow (37, 38). These examples show that a small amount of rain, fog, or snow and even atmospheric humidity can be adequate for photosynthetic production producing a small but detectable microbial community. + +Photosynthesis in dry environments. In the driest environments on Earth, photosynthesis occurs inside and under rocks. (A) Green layer of cyanobacteria living just below the surface of halite rocks in the dry core of the Atacama Desert (30). (B) Inverted samples of red-coated, carbonate translucent rocks from the Mojave desert showing green biofilm of cyanobacteria that live beneath the rock (32, 35, 36). (C) Lichen forming a green and black layer inside sandstone from the Dry Valleys of Antarctica (37). Scale bar in all images, 1 cm. Images A, B, and C are courtesy of J. Wierzchos, C. McKay, and E.I. Friedmann, respectively. + +Energy. + +Energy for life can come from chemical redox couples generated by geothermal processes or light from the central star. Geothermal flux can arise from (i) the planet cooling off from its gravitational heat of formation, (ii) decay of long-lived radioactive elements, or (iii) tidal heating for a close-orbiting world or moon. Note that on Earth only a tiny fraction of the geothermal heat is converted into chemical energy, whereas about half the solar flux occurs at wavelengths that are usable for photosynthesis. This is expected as the free energy available in heat flow is much less than that available in low-entropy photons. The example of Earth indicates that a biosphere can have effects on a global scale, and hence be detectable over interstellar distances, only when it is powered by light. Life based on geothermally derived chemical energy would, by dint of energy restrictions, always remain small and globally insignificant. Life is able to use light at very low levels. Littler et al. (39) reported on growth of red macroalgae on deep seamounts at light levels of 0.01 μmol m−2⋅s−1. Raven et al. (40) have reviewed the minimum light levels for photosynthesis and also concluded that 0.01 μmol m−2⋅s−1 is needed (40) or ∼5 × 10−6 of the direct solar flux at Earth (2,000 μmol m−2⋅s−1). Even at the orbit of Pluto, light levels exceed this value by a factor of ∼100. It has been suggested that exoplanets around M stars––a common star type which radiates more in the infrared compared with the Sun––could support photosynthesis using a three- or four-photon mechanism photon instead of the two-photon system used in plants on Earth (41). +UV and Radiation. + +Complex life forms (such as humans) are sensitive to radiation but the dose that can be tolerated by many microorganisms is astonishingly high given natural levels of radiation in the environment. Table 3 lists the tolerances and acute dose survival for Deinococcus radiodurans, a well-studied soil heterotroph with high radiation tolerance (42). It has been suggested that the high radiation tolerance of D. radiodurans is due to adaptation to dehydration stress (43). Desert cyanobacteria of the genus Chroococcidiopsis (shown in their characteristic hypolithic growth form in Fig. 3B) are extremely resistant to desiccation, ionizing radiation, and UV (44, 45). An exoplanet would not require a magnetic field to be habitable. Any plausible field would not deflect galactic cosmic rays because these particles are much too energetic. These particles are primarily stopped by the mass of the atmosphere or surface materials. The column mass Earth's atmosphere is equivalent to 1 kg/cm2. The Earth's magnetic field does deflect solar protons channeling these particles to the polar regions creating the aurora. However, even without the magnetic field these particles would not penetrate the Earth's atmosphere and would not reach the surface. Earth occasionally loses its strong dipole field during field reversals. These events are not correlated with extinctions in the fossil record. +Nitrogen. + +Life requires a source of nitrogen. After carbon, nitrogen is arguably the most important element needed for life (46). Experiments have shown that aerobic microorganisms require a minimum of 1–5 × 10−3 atmospheres N2 for fixation (47). A variety of energetic processes such as aurorae, lightning, and volcanoes can convert N2 to nitrate even in CO2 atmospheres (48). In the reducing conditions of the outer Solar System N is present as ammonia which is also biologically usable. The biological availability of nitrogen in an important factor in the assignment of habitability for Mars (49, 50). +O2. + +Multicellular life on Earth generally relies on oxygen metabolism, and the rise of multicellular life over Earth history tracked the rise of oxygen (51). There are interesting exceptions to the connection between oxygen and multicellular life (52, 53) and the link to O2 may be in need of further scrutiny (54). Nonetheless, levels of O2 over a few percent on an exoplanet would be consistent with, and possibly indicative of, the presence of multicellular organisms. Owen (55) suggested that O2 and O3 would be suitable targets for spectroscopy in the search for evidence of life on exoplanets and exomoons. It is generally agreed that high levels of O2 on Earth-like worlds indicate photosynthesis. +Origin of Life + +Discussions of life on an exoplanet should logically begin with a consideration of the possible origin of life on that world. However, our understanding of the origin of life is speculative and so we can only assume that planets that have a diversity of habitable environments are also generative of life (1). + +As shown in Fig. 4, it is useful to divide theories for the origin of life on Earth into two main categories, depending on whether life originated independently on a world or was carried to that world from somewhere else (1). The latter category is usually called panspermia, and versions that involve both natural and directed panspermia have been considered (1). + +There are possible panspermia schemes that are relevant to exoplanets. Napier (56) has proposed that life could be carried on dust between stars (see also ref. 57), and others have suggested rocks could travel between star systems (58, 59). If such dust grains or rocks were incorporated into the preplanetary nebula, then every planet and moon that formed would be infected with life. + +Theories for the origin of life that propose that life on Earth began on Earth are labeled as “Terrestrial” in Fig. 4 and could apply to suitable exoplanets as well. A key question for life on exoplanets is how long the habitable conditions––liquid water––must persist for life to begin. The fossil record on Earth provides only broad constraints on how long it took for life to start on this planet. Simulations of the formation of Earth suggest that habitable conditions were present no sooner than 3.9 billion y ago. The earliest indication of possible life is present in the carbon isotope record at 3.8 billion y ago (60, 61), and convincing evidence of life is present at 3.4 billion y ago (62). Thus, the origin of life occurred within 100–500 million y after the formation of Earth. This is only an upper limit, however, and the process may have been much faster. In a review of this question, Lazcano and Miller (63) suggested that “in spite of the many uncertainties involved in the estimates of time for life to arise and evolve to cyanobacteria, we see no compelling reason to assume that this process, from the beginning of the primitive soup to cyanobacteria, took more than 10 million years.” However, Orgel (64) criticized this conclusion and stated that we do not understand the steps that lead to life; consequently, we cannot estimate the time required: “Attempts to circumvent this essential difficulty are based on misunderstandings of the nature of the problem.” Thus, until new data are obtained the problem of origin of life remains unsolvable. +Titan Life + +In the previous sections, the considerations of life on exoplanets have centered on Earth-like life requiring liquid water. This is certainly a reasonable starting point in the search for life. However, it may be that liquids other than water are also suitable media for carbon-based life forms. Benner et al. (65) first suggested that the liquid hydrocarbons on Titan could be the basis for life, playing the role that water does for life on Earth. Those researchers concluded that in many senses, hydrocarbon solvents are better than water for managing complex organic chemical reactivity. There is also suitable redox energy available for life. Organic molecules on the surface of Titan (such as acetylene, ethane, and solid organics) would release energy if they reacted with hydrogen present in the atmosphere forming methane (19, 66). Acetylene yields the most energy. However, all these reactions are kinetically inhibited and thus could be used by biology if suitable catalysts were evolved. Based on this, McKay and Smith (19) predicted that a sign of life on a Titan-like world would be a depletion of hydrogen, acetylene, and ethane. Lunine (67) suggested that Titan-like worlds and moons might be more common in the galaxy than Earth-like worlds. Gilliam and McKay (68) showed how Titan-like worlds orbiting M-type stars could maintain liquid methane and ethane surface reservoirs. + +Titan is an example moon that is of interest with respect to astrobiology. In our Solar System Europa and Enceladus are similarly of interest. Indeed, Enceladus seems to have all of the requirements for habitability (69). It has long been recognized that moons of giant planets may be warmed by tidal heating from the primary planet and receive sufficient light from a central star to power photosynthesis (70). This provides a model for possible habitable moons orbiting giant exoplanets (71). +Conclusion + +As the number of known exoplanets and exomoons expands we will certainly find worlds that resemble the Earth to varying extent. Based on our understanding of life on Earth we can present a checklist for speculating on the possibilities of life on these distant worlds. (i) Is the temperature between −15 °C and 122 °C, and a total pressure high enough to keep water liquid water stable (P > ∼0.01 atmospheres)? (ii) If the world is arid, are there at last a few days per year of rain, fog, snow, or RH > 80%? (iii) Are there adequate light or geothermal energy sources––light determined by distance from the star, geothermal energy estimated by bulk density? (iv) Are the UV and ionizing radiation below the (very high) limits of microbial tolerance? (v) Is there a biologically available source of nitrogen? (vi) If O2 is present at over 0.01 atmospheres there could be complex life, and the presence of O2 is convincing indicator of photosynthetic life on Earth-like worlds. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/kurzgesagt_deep_life.txt b/data/kurzgesagt_deep_life.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..aa89a5a --- /dev/null +++ b/data/kurzgesagt_deep_life.txt @@ -0,0 +1,82 @@ +Significance + +The composition of the biosphere is a fundamental question in biology, yet a global quantitative account of the biomass of each taxon is still lacking. We assemble a census of the biomass of all kingdoms of life. This analysis provides a holistic view of the composition of the biosphere and allows us to observe broad patterns over taxonomic categories, geographic locations, and trophic modes. +Abstract + +A census of the biomass on Earth is key for understanding the structure and dynamics of the biosphere. However, a global, quantitative view of how the biomass of different taxa compare with one another is still lacking. Here, we assemble the overall biomass composition of the biosphere, establishing a census of the ≈550 gigatons of carbon (Gt C) of biomass distributed among all of the kingdoms of life. We find that the kingdoms of life concentrate at different locations on the planet; plants (≈450 Gt C, the dominant kingdom) are primarily terrestrial, whereas animals (≈2 Gt C) are mainly marine, and bacteria (≈70 Gt C) and archaea (≈7 Gt C) are predominantly located in deep subsurface environments. We show that terrestrial biomass is about two orders of magnitude higher than marine biomass and estimate a total of ≈6 Gt C of marine biota, doubling the previous estimated quantity. Our analysis reveals that the global marine biomass pyramid contains more consumers than producers, thus increasing the scope of previous observations on inverse food pyramids. Finally, we highlight that the mass of humans is an order of magnitude higher than that of all wild mammals combined and report the historical impact of humanity on the global biomass of prominent taxa, including mammals, fish, and plants. +Sign up for PNAS alerts. + +Get alerts for new articles, or get an alert when an article is cited. + +One of the most fundamental efforts in biology is to describe the composition of the living world. Centuries of research have yielded an increasingly detailed picture of the species that inhabit our planet and their respective roles in global ecosystems. In describing a complex system like the biosphere, it is critical to quantify the abundance of individual components of the system (i.e., species, broader taxonomic groups). A quantitative description of the distribution of biomass is essential for taking stock of biosequestered carbon (1) and modeling global biogeochemical cycles (2), as well as for understanding the historical effects and future impacts of human activities. + +Earlier efforts to estimate global biomass have mostly focused on plants (3–5). In parallel, a dominant role for prokaryotic biomass has been advocated in a landmark paper by Whitman et al. (6) entitled “Prokaryotes: The unseen majority.” New sampling and detection techniques (7, 8) make it possible to revisit this claim. Likewise, for other taxa, such as fish, recent global sampling campaigns (9) have resulted in updated estimates, often differing by an order of magnitude or more from previous estimates. For groups such as arthropods, global estimates are still lacking (10, 11). + +All of the above efforts are each focused on a single taxon. We are aware of only two attempts at a comprehensive accounting of all biomass components on Earth: Whittaker and Likens (12) made a remarkable effort in the early 1970s, noting even then that their study was “intended for early obsolescence.” It did not include, for example, bacterial or fungal biomass. The other attempt, by Smil (13), was included as a subsection of a book intended for a broad readership. His work details characteristic values for the biomass of various taxa in many environments. Finally, Wikipedia serves as a highly effective platform for making accessible a range of estimates on various taxa (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biomass_(ecology)#Global_biomass) but currently falls short of a comprehensive or integrated view. + +In the past decade, several major technological and scientific advances have facilitated an improved quantitative account of the biomass on Earth. Next-generation sequencing has enabled a more detailed and cultivation-independent view of the composition of natural communities based on the relative abundance of genomes (14). Better remote sensing tools enable us to probe the environment on a global scale with unprecedented resolution and specificity. The Tara Oceans expedition (15) is among recent efforts at global sampling that are expanding our view and coverage. Continental counterpart efforts, such as the National Ecological Observatory Network in North America, add more finely resolved, continent-specific details, affording us more robust descriptions of natural habitats. + +Here, we either assemble or generate estimates of the biomass for each of the major taxonomic groups that contribute to the global biomass distribution. Our analysis (described in detail in SI Appendix) is based on hundreds of studies, including recent studies that have overturned earlier estimates for many taxa (e.g., fish, subsurface prokaryotes, marine eukaryotes, soil fauna). +Results +The Biomass Distribution of the Biosphere by Kingdom. + +In Fig. 1 and Table 1, we report our best estimates for the biomass of each taxon analyzed. We use biomass as a measure of abundance, which allows us to compare taxa whose members are of very different sizes. Biomass is also a useful metric for quantifying stocks of elements sequestered in living organisms. We report biomass using the mass of carbon, as this measure is independent of water content and has been used extensively in the literature (6, 16, 17). Alternative measures for biomass, such as dry weight, are discussed in Materials and Methods. For ease of discussion, we report biomass in gigatons of carbon, with 1 Gt C = 1015 g of carbon. We supply additional estimates for the number of individuals of different taxa in + +Whereas groups like insects dominate in terms of species richness [with about 1 million described species (23)], their relative biomass fraction is miniscule. Some species contribute much more than entire families or even classes. For example, the Antarctic krill species Euphausia superba contributes ≈0.05 Gt C to global biomass (24), similar to other prominent species such as humans or cows. This value is comparable to the contribution from termites (25), which contain many species, and far surpasses the biomass of entire vertebrate classes such as birds. In this way, the picture that arises from taking a biomass perspective of the biosphere complements the focus on species richness that is commonly held (SI Appendix, Fig. S3). +The Uncertainty Associated with Global Biomass Estimates. + +The specific methods used for each taxon are highly diverse and are given in detail in the SI Appendix, along with data sources. Global biomass estimates vary in the amount of information they are based on and, consequently, in their uncertainty. An estimate of relatively high certainty is that of plants, which is based on several independent sources. One of these is the Forest Resource Assessment, a survey on the state of world forests conducted by the international Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO). The assessment is based on a collection of country reports that detail the area and biomass density of forests in each country (26) using a standardized format and methodology. The FAO also keeps a record of nonforest ecosystems, such as savannas and shrublands, in each country. Alternatively, remote sensing data give high coverage of measurements that indicate plant biomass (27–29). Remote sensing is used to measure, for example, the height of trees or the number of tree stems per unit area. Biomass is inferred by field measurements establishing a connection between tree plant biomass and satellite-based remote sensing measurements. Combining data from independent sources such as these enables a robust assessment of the total plant biomass (17). + +A more characteristic case with larger uncertainties is exemplified by marine prokaryotes, where cell concentrations are measured in various locations and binned based on depth. For each depth range, the average cell concentration is calculated and the total number of marine prokaryotes is estimated through multiplication by the water volume in each depth range. The total number of cells is converted to biomass by using the characteristic carbon content per marine prokaryote. In cases where there are fewer measurements (e.g., terrestrial arthropods, terrestrial protists), the possibility of systematic biases in the estimate is greater and the uncertainty larger. To test the robustness of our estimates, we used independent approaches and analyzed the agreement between such independent estimates. Details on the specific methodologies used for each taxon are provided in the SI Appendix. Because most datasets used to estimate global biomass rely on fragmentary sampling, we project large uncertainties that will be reduced as additional data become available. +The Impact of Humanity on the Biosphere. + +Over the relatively short span of human history, major innovations, such as the domestication of livestock, adoption of an agricultural lifestyle, and the Industrial Revolution, have increased the human population dramatically and have had radical ecological effects. Today, the biomass of humans (≈0.06 Gt C; SI Appendix, Table S9) and the biomass of livestock (≈0.1 Gt C, dominated by cattle and pigs; SI Appendix, Table S10) far surpass that of wild mammals, which has a mass of ≈0.007 Gt C (SI Appendix, Table S11). This is also true for wild and domesticated birds, for which the biomass of domesticated poultry (≈0.005 Gt C, dominated by chickens) is about threefold higher than that of wild birds (≈0.002 Gt C; SI Appendix, Table S12). In fact, humans and livestock outweigh all vertebrates combined, with the exception of fish. Even though humans and livestock dominate mammalian biomass, they are a small fraction of the ≈2 Gt C of animal biomass, which primarily comprises arthropods (≈1 Gt C; SI Appendix, Tables S13 and S14), followed by fish (≈0.7 Gt C; SI Appendix, Table S15). Comparison of current global biomass with prehuman values (which are very difficult to estimate accurately) demonstrates the impact of humans on the biosphere. Human activity contributed to the Quaternary Megafauna Extinction between ≈50,000 and ≈3,000 y ago, which claimed around half of the large (>40 kg) land mammal species (30). The biomass of wild land mammals before this period of extinction was estimated by Barnosky (30) at ≈0.02 Gt C. The present-day biomass of wild land mammals is approximately sevenfold lower, at ≈0.003 Gt C (SI Appendix, Pre-human Biomass and Chordates and Table S11). Intense whaling and exploitation of other marine mammals have resulted in an approximately fivefold decrease in marine mammal global biomass [from ≈0.02 Gt C to ≈0.004 Gt C (31)]. While the total biomass of wild mammals (both marine and terrestrial) decreased by a factor of ≈6, the total mass of mammals increased approximately fourfold from ≈0.04 Gt C to ≈0.17 Gt C due to the vast increase of the biomass of humanity and its associated livestock. Human activity has also impacted global vertebrate stocks, with a decrease of ≈0.1 Gt C in total fish biomass, an amount similar to the remaining total biomass in fisheries and to the gain in the total mammalian biomass due to livestock husbandry (SI Appendix, Pre-human Biomass). The impact of human civilization on global biomass has not been limited to mammals but has also profoundly reshaped the total quantity of carbon sequestered by plants. A worldwide census of the total number of trees (32), as well as a comparison of actual and potential plant biomass (17), has suggested that the total plant biomass (and, by proxy, the total biomass on Earth) has declined approximately twofold relative to its value before the start of human civilization. The total biomass of crops cultivated by humans is estimated at ≈10 Gt C, which accounts for only ≈2% of the extant total plant biomass (17). +The Distribution of Biomass Across Environments and Trophic Modes. + +Examining global biomass in different environments exposes stark differences between terrestrial and marine environments. The ocean covers 71% of the Earth’s surface and occupies a much larger volume than the terrestrial environment, yet land biomass, at ≈470 Gt C, is about two orders of magnitude higher than the ≈6 Gt C in marine biomass, as shown in Fig. 2A. Even though there is a large difference in the biomass content of the terrestrial and marine environments, the primary productivity of the two environments is roughly equal (33). For plants, we find that most biomass is concentrated in terrestrial environments (plants have only a small fraction of marine biomass, <1 Gt C, in the form of green algae and seagrass; Fig. 2B). For animals, most biomass is concentrated in the marine environment, and for bacteria and archaea, most biomass is concentrated in deep subsurface environments. We note that several of the results in Fig. 2B should be interpreted with caution due to the large uncertainty associated with some of the estimates, mostly those of total terrestrial protists, marine fungi, and contributions from deep subsurface environments. + +When analyzing trophic levels, the biomass of primary producers on land is much larger than that of primary and secondary consumers. In stark contrast, in the oceans, ≈1 Gt C of primary producers supports ≈5 Gt C of consumer biomass, resulting in an inverted standing biomass distribution as shown in Fig. 2C. Such inverted biomass distributions can occur when primary producers have a rapid turnover of biomass [on the order of days (34)], while consumer biomass turns over much more slowly [a few years in the case of mesopelagic fish (35)]. Thus, the standing stock of consumers is larger, even though the productivity of producers is necessarily higher. Previous reports have observed inverted biomass pyramids in local marine environments (36, 37). An additional study noted an inverted consumer/producer ratio for the global plankton biomass (16). Our analysis suggests that these observations hold true when looking at the global biomass of all producers and consumers in the marine environment. +Discussion + +Our census of the distribution of biomass on Earth provides an integrated global picture of the relative and absolute abundances of all kingdoms of life. We find that the biomass of plants dominates the biomass of the biosphere and is mostly located on land. The marine environment is primarily occupied by microbes, mainly bacteria and protists, which account for ≈70% of the total marine biomass. The remaining ≈30% is mainly composed of arthropods and fish. The deep subsurface holds ≈15% of the total biomass in the biosphere. It is chiefly composed of bacteria and archaea, which are mostly surface-attached and turn over their biomass every several months to thousands of years (18–22). + +In addition to summarizing current knowledge of the global biomass distribution, our work highlights gaps in the current understanding of the biosphere. Our knowledge of the biomass composition of different taxa is mainly determined by our ability to sample their biomass in the wild. For groups such as plants, the use of multiple sources to estimate global biomass increases our confidence in the validity of current estimates. However, for other groups, such as terrestrial arthropods and protists, quantitative sampling of biomass is limited by technical constraints, and comprehensive data are thus lacking. Beyond specific taxa, there are entire environments for which our knowledge is very limited, namely, the deep subsurface environments such as deep aquifers and the ocean’s crust, which might hold the world largest aquifer (38). Studies in these environments are scarce, meaning that our estimates have particularly high uncertainty ranges and unknown systematic biases. Main gaps in our knowledge of these environments pertain to the distribution of biomass between the aquifer fluids and the surrounding rocks and the distribution of biomass between different microbial taxa, such as bacteria, archaea, protists, and fungi. Scientists have closely monitored the impact of humans on global biodiversity (39–41), but less attention has been given to total biomass, resulting in high uncertainty regarding the impact of humanity on the biomass of vertebrates. Our estimates for the current and prehuman biomasses of vertebrates are only a crude first step in calculating these values (SI Appendix, Prehuman Biomass). The biomass of amphibians, which are experiencing a dramatic population decline (42), remains poorly characterized. Future research could reduce the uncertainty of current estimates by sampling more environments, which will better represent the diverse biosphere on Earth. In the case of prokaryotes, some major improvements were recently realized, with global estimates of marine deep subsurface prokaryote biomass reduced by about two orders of magnitude due to an increased diversity of sampling locations (7). + +Identifying gaps in our knowledge could indicate areas for which further scientific exploration could have the biggest impact on our understanding of the biosphere. As a concrete example, we identify the ratio between attached to unattached cells in the deep aquifers as a major contributor to the uncertainties associated with our estimate of the biomass of bacteria, archaea, and viruses. Improving our understanding of this specific parameter could help us better constrain the global biomasses of entire domains of life. In addition to improving our reported estimates, future studies can achieve a finer categorization of taxa. For example, the biomass of parasites, which is not resolved from their hosts in this study, might be larger than the biomass of top predators in some environments (43). + +By providing a unified, updated, and accessible global view of the biomass of different taxa, we also aim to disseminate knowledge of the biosphere composition to a wide range of students and researchers. Our survey puts into perspective claims regarding the overarching dominance of groups such as termites and ants (44), nematodes (45), and prokaryotes (6). For example, the biomass of termites [≈0.05 Gt C (25)] is on par with that of humans but is still around an order of magnitude smaller than that of other taxa, such as fish (≈0.7 Gt C; SI Appendix, Table S15). Other groups, such as nematodes, surpass any other animal species in terms of number of individuals (SI Appendix, Fig. S2) but constitute only about 1% of the total animal biomass. + +The census of biomass distribution on Earth presented here is comprehensive in scope and based on synthesis of data from the recent scientific literature. The integrated dataset enables us to draw basic conclusions concerning kingdoms that dominate the biomass of the biosphere, the distribution of biomass of each kingdom across different environments, and the opposite structures of the global marine and terrestrial biomass pyramids. We identify areas in which current knowledge is lacking and further research is most required. Ideally, future research will include both temporal and geographic resolution. We believe that the results described in this study will provide students and researchers with a holistic quantitative context for studying our biosphere. +Materials and Methods +Taxon-Specific Detailed Description of Data Sources and Procedures for Estimating Biomass. + +The complete account of the data sources used for estimating the biomass of each taxon, procedures for estimating biomass, and projections for the uncertainty associated with the estimate for the biomass of each taxon are provided in the SI Appendix. To make the steps for estimating the biomass of each taxon more accessible, we provide supplementary tables that summarize the procedure as well as online notebooks for the calculation of the biomass of each taxon (see data flow scheme in SI Appendix, Overview). In Table 1, we detail the relevant supplementary table that summarizes the steps for arriving at each estimate. All of the data used to generate our estimates, as well as the code used for analysis, are open-sourced and available at https://github.com/milo-lab/biomass_distribution. +Choice of Units for Measuring Biomass. + +Biomass is reported in gigatons of carbon. Alternative options to represent biomass include, among others, biovolume, wet mass, or dry weight. We chose to use carbon mass as the measure of biomass because it is independent of water content and is used extensively in the literature. Dry mass also has these features but is used less frequently. All of our reported values can be transformed to dry weight to a good approximation by multiplying by 2, the characteristic conversion factor between carbon and total dry mass (46–48). + +We report the significant digits for our values throughout the paper using the following scheme: For values with an uncertainty projection that is higher than twofold, we report a single significant digit. For values with an uncertainty projection of less than twofold, we report two significant digits. In cases when we report one significant digit, we do not consider a leading “1” as a significant digit. +General Framework for Estimating Global Biomass. + +In achieving global estimates, there is a constant challenge of how to move from a limited set of local samples to a representative global value. How does one estimate global biomass based on a limited set of local samples? For a crude estimate, the average of all local values of biomass per unit area is multiplied by the total global area. A more effective estimate can be made by correlating measured values to environmental parameters that are known at a global scale (e.g., temperature, depth, distance from shore, primary productivity, biome type), as shown in Fig. 3. This correlation is used to extrapolate the biomass of a taxon at a specific location based on the known distribution of the environmental parameter (e.g., the temperature at each location on the globe). By integrating across the total surface of the world, a global estimate is derived. We detail the specific extrapolation procedure used for each taxon in both the SI Appendix and supplementary tables (SI Appendix, Tables S1–S23). For most taxa, our best estimates are based on a geometric mean of several independent estimates using different methodologies. The geometric mean estimates the median value if the independent estimates are log-normally distributed or, more generally, the distribution of estimates is symmetrical in log space. + +Uncertainty Estimation and Reporting. + +Global estimates such as those we use in the present work are largely based on sampling from the distribution of biomass worldwide and then extrapolating for areas in which samples are missing. The sampling of biomass in each location can be based on direct biomass measurements or conversion to biomass from other types of measurement, such as number of individuals and their characteristic weight. Some of the main sources of uncertainty for the estimates we present are the result of using such geographical extrapolations and conversion from number of individuals to overall biomass. The certainty of the estimate is linked to the amount of sampling on which the estimate is based. Notable locations in which sampling is scarce are the deep ocean (usually deeper than 200 m) and deep layers of soil (usually deeper than 1 m). For some organisms, such as annelids and marine protists and arthropods, most estimates neglect these environments, thus underestimating the actual biomass. Sampling can be biased toward places that have high abundance and diversity of wildlife. Relying on data with such sampling bias can cause overestimation of the actual biomass of a taxon. + +Another source of uncertainty comes from conversion to biomass. Conversion from counts of individuals to biomass is based on either known average weights per individual (e.g., 50 kg of wet weight for a human, which averages over adults and children, or 10 mg of dry weight for a “characteristic” earthworm) or empirical allometric equations that are organism-specific, such as conversion from animal length to biomass. When using such conversion methods, there is a risk of introducing biases and noise into the final estimate. Nevertheless, there is often no way around using such conversions. As such, we must be aware that the data may contain such biases. + +In addition to describing the procedures leading to the estimate of each taxon, we quantitatively survey the main sources of uncertainty associated with each estimate and calculate an uncertainty range for each of our biomass estimates. We choose to report uncertainties as representing, to the best of our ability given the many constraints, what is equivalent to a 95% confidence interval for the estimate of the mean. Uncertainties reported in our analysis are multiplicative (fold change from the mean) and not additive (± change of the estimate). We chose to use multiplicative uncertainty as it is more robust to large fluctuations in estimates, and because it is in accord with the way we generate our best estimates, which is usually by using a geometric mean of different independent estimates. Our uncertainty projections are focused on the main kingdoms of life: plants, bacteria, archaea, fungi, protists, and animals. + +The general framework for constructing our uncertainties (described in detail for each taxon in the SI Appendix and in the online notebooks) takes into account both intrastudy uncertainty and interstudy uncertainty. Intrastudy uncertainty refers to uncertainty estimates reported within a specific study, whereas interstudy uncertainty refers to variation in estimates of a certain quantity between different papers. In many cases, we use several independent methodologies to estimate the same quantity. In these cases, we can also use the variation between estimates from each methodology as a measure of the uncertainty of our final estimate. We refer to this type of uncertainty as intermethod uncertainty. The way we usually calculate uncertainties is by taking the logarithm of the values reported either within studies or from different studies. Taking the logarithm moves the values to log-space, where the SE is calculated (by dividing the SD by the square root of the number of values). We then multiply the SE by a factor of 1.96 (which would give the 95% confidence interval if the transformed data were normally distributed). Finally, we exponentiate the result to get the multiplicative factor in linear space that represents the confidence interval (akin to a 95% confidence interval if the data were log-normally distributed). + +Most of our estimates are constructed by combining several different estimates (e.g., combining total number of individuals and characteristic carbon content of a single organism). In these cases, we use intrastudy, interstudy, or intermethod variation associated with each parameter that is used to derive the final estimate and propagate these uncertainties to the final estimate of biomass. The uncertainty analysis for each specific biomass estimate incorporates different components of this general scheme, depending on the amount of information that is available, as detailed on a case-by-case basis in the SI Appendix. + +In cases where information is ample, the procedure described above yields several different uncertainty estimates for each parameter that we use to derive the final estimate (e.g., intrastudy uncertainty, interstudy uncertainty). We integrate these different uncertainties, usually by taking the highest value as the best projection of uncertainty. In some cases, for example, when information is scarce or some sources of uncertainty are hard to quantify, we base our estimates on the uncertainty in analogous taxa and consultation with relevant experts. We tend to round up our uncertainty projections when data are especially limited. +Taxonomic Levels Used. + +Our census gives estimates for the global biomass at various taxonomic levels. Our main results relate to the kingdom level: animals, archaea, bacteria, fungi, plants, and protists. Although the division into kingdoms is not the most contemporary taxonomic grouping that exists, we chose to use it for the current analysis as most of the data we rely upon does not provide finer taxonomic details (e.g., the division of terrestrial protists is mainly based on morphology and not on taxonomy). We supplement these kingdoms of living organisms with an estimate for the global biomass of viruses, which are not included in the current tree of life but play a key role in global biogeochemical cycles (49). For all kingdoms except animals, all taxa making up the kingdom are considered together. For estimating the biomass of animals, we use a bottom-up approach, which estimates the biomass of key phyla constituting the animal kingdom. The sum of the biomass of these phyla represents our estimate of the total biomass of animals. We give estimates for most phyla and estimate bounds for the possible biomass contribution for the remaining phyla (SI Appendix, Other Animal Phyla). Within chordates, we provide estimates for key classes, such as fish, mammals, and birds. We estimate that the contribution of reptiles and amphibians to the total chordate biomass is negligible, as we discuss in the SI Appendix. We divide the class of mammals into wild mammals and humans plus livestock (without a contribution from poultry, which is negligible compared with cattle and pigs). Even though livestock is not a valid taxonomic division, we use it to consider the impact of humans on the total biomass of mammals. +Data Availability +Acknowledgments + +We thank Shai Meiri for help with estimating the biomass of wild mammals, birds, and reptiles and Arren Bar-Even, Oded Beja, Jorg Bernhardt, Tristan Biard, Chris Bowler, Nuno Carvalhais, Otto Coredero, Gidon Eshel, Ofer Feinerman, Noah Fierer, Daniel Fisher, Avi Flamholtz, Assaf Gal, José Grünzweig, Marcel van der Heijden, Dina Hochhauser, Julie Huber, Qusheng Jin, Bo Barker Jørgensen, Jens Kallmeyer, Tamir Klein, Christian Koerner, Daniel Madar, Fabrice Not, Katherine O’Donnell, Gal Ofir, Victoria Orphan, Noam Prywes, John Raven, Dave Savage, Einat Segev, Maya Shamir, Izak Smit, Rotem Sorek, Ofer Steinitz, Miri Tsalyuk, Assaf Vardi, Colomban de Vargas, Joshua Weitz, Yossi Yovel, Yonatan Zegman, and two anonymous reviewers for productive feedback on this manuscript. This research was supported by the European Research Council (project NOVCARBFIX 646827), the Israel Science Foundation (Grant 740/16), the ISF-NRF Singapore Joint Research Program (Grant 7662712), the Beck Canadian Center for Alternative Energy Research, Dana and Yossie Hollander, the Ullmann Family Foundation, the Helmsley Charitable Foundation, the Larson Charitable Foundation, the Wolfson Family Charitable Trust, Charles Rothschild, and Selmo Nussenbaum. This study was also supported by the NIH through Grant 1R35 GM118043-01 (MIRA). R.M. is the Charles and Louise Gartner Professional Chair. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/news_article_1.txt b/data/news_article_1.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..2716807 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/news_article_1.txt @@ -0,0 +1,41 @@ + + +Conor McGregor will run for the Irish presidency in elections later this year, the controversial former fighter said on Thursday, as he announced his candidacy for the largely ceremonial role on an anti-immigration stance. + +McGregor, who in recent years has emerged as a figurehead for the far-right in Ireland, said on social media that he would run for president to oppose a long-awaited new European Union migration pact aimed at sharing the burden of processing asylum claims more evenly across the bloc. + +“Who else will stand up to Government and oppose this bill?” he said in an Instagram post to his more than 46 million followers. “Any other Presidential candidate they attempt to put forward will be of no resistance to them. I will!” + +The post comes just days after McGregor, 36, appeared at the White House with Donald Trump on St. Patrick Day, where he became the latest European ally of the US president to promote anti-immigrant sentiment – drawing controversy and censure back home. + +“Ireland is at the cusp of potentially losing its Irishness,” McGregor said Monday, claiming the government had “abandoned the voices” of Irish people and that rural towns were being overrun by immigrants. + +Irish leader Micheál Martin said McGregor comments “did not reflect the spirit of St. Patrick Day, or the views of the people of Ireland.” + + Once the face of the Ultimate Fighting Championship, Dublin-born McGregor was the first fighter to hold two UFC belts simultaneously and, according to Forbes, was the world highest paid sports star in 2021. + +Despite several rumored comebacks, he hasn’t fought in the UFC since back-to-back defeats four years ago – and has become a hugely controversial figure in Ireland, dogged by accusations of sexual assault, which he has denied. + +In a January civil lawsuit, a woman accused McGregor of sexual battery during the 2023 NBA Finals in Miami. The incident was investigated by police at the time and the Miami-Dade state attorney declined to press charges against him. McGregor said the allegations were false. + +Last fall, a civil jury in Dublin awarded nearly 250,000 euros ($257,000) in damages to a woman who claimed McGregor had “brutally raped and battered” her in a hotel in Dublin in 2018. McGregor testified that the two had consensual sex and vowed to appeal the verdict. + +In recent years, McGregor has also turned his attention to sparring with people on social media. Political analysts and far-right experts have told CNN that McGregor unique brand of Irish patriotism that won him supporters as a fighter has mutated into a strand of “far-right” Irish nationalism. + +As far back as 2022, McGregor had expressed support for people protesting against immigration. Some Irish politicians have accused him of fanning the flames of discontent online, voicing his anger at Ireland immigration policy – a particularly sensitive issue given the country long history of emigration. + +Ireland, a country of just over 5 million people, saw 141,600 immigrants arrive in the year leading up to April 2023 – the highest figure in 16 years with some attracted by its strong economic performance, according to the Central Statistics Office Ireland. + + But for many ordinary workers, the benefits are failing to reach their pockets and they are struggling to afford high housing prices and rents. + +Ireland next presidential election must take place by November 11. + +In his Instagram post Thursday, McGregor said he would put the EU migration bill to a referendum if elected. + +“Although I oppose greatly this pact, it is neither mine nor government choice to make. It is the people of Ireland choice! Always!” he wrote. + +“This is the future of Ireland with me as President.” + +But McGregor faces an uphill task to get his name on the ballot as few Irish lawmakers share his vehement anti-immigrant views, and many publicly criticized him after the civil case last November. + +Presidential candidates must be nominated by at least 20 of the 234 members of the lower and upper houses of parliament or by four of Ireland 31 local councils, according to the country electoral commission. diff --git a/data/news_article_2.txt b/data/news_article_2.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..608ed37 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/news_article_2.txt @@ -0,0 +1,31 @@ + The government of Israel’s Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu has voted to dismiss Ronen Bar, the chief of Israel’s Shin Bet internal security service. + +The vote in the early hours of Friday local time could still be subject to appeals by Israel’s Supreme Court. + +“The government has now unanimously approved Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu’s proposal to terminate the term of Shin Bet head Ronen Bar,” the Prime Minister’s Office said in a statement Friday. + +“Ronen Bar will end his role as Shin Bet head on April 10, 2025, or when a permanent Shin Bet head is appointed – whichever comes first,” it added. + +It came after Netanyahu met with Bar last week and informed him that he would propose his removal. + +In a video statement released on Sunday, Netanyahu said his “ongoing distrust” of Bar had led to the move. “At all times, but especially in such an existential war, the prime minister must have full confidence in the head of the Shin Bet,” Netanyahu said. + +Netanyahu added that removing Bar would be necessary for achieving Israel’s war goals in Gaza and “preventing the next disaster.” The prime minister has frequently criticized the agency, placing blame on its leaders for the security lapses that led to the Hamas October 7, 2023, attacks that killed more than 1,200 people. + +Shin Bet, which is in charge of monitoring domestic threats to Israel, conducted an internal investigation that determined that the agency had “failed in its mission” to prevent the attacks. But it also blamed policies enacted by Netanyahu’s government as contributing factors, such as politicians’ visits to the Al Aqsa compound in Jerusalem, “the treatment of prisoners, and the perception that Israeli society has been weakened due to the damage to social cohesion.” + + An Israeli official told CNN on Thursday that the government had “lost all confidence in Ronen Bar, who continues to cling to his seat while cynically using the families of the hostages and politically improperly using his position to fabricate futile, unfounded investigations.” + +Shin Bet is reported to have recently opened an investigation into allegations that members of Netanyahu’s office inappropriately lobbied on behalf of Qatar – something his office denies. + +On Wednesday, the office of Attorney General Gali Baharav-Miara sent a letter to Netanyahu saying that the government could not fire Bar without the approval of a special committee. + +Netanyahu responded with a letter on Thursday, saying Baharav-Miara was “exceeding her authority” and “giving legal opinions and instructions to the government in violation of Supreme Court rulings.” + +Bar released a statement just hours before his dismissal saying the vote by Netanyahu’s cabinet “was hastily convened, contrary to every basic legal rule dealing with the right to be heard and contrary to the position of the legal adviser to the government.” + +Netanyahu has previously removed both Bar and the head of the Mossad intelligence service, David Barnea, from the negotiating team engaging in indirect talks with Hamas regarding the Gaza ceasefire and hostage deal. + +Opposition politicians have criticized Netanyahu’s targeting of Bar, claiming it is politically motivated. + +“The dismissal of the head of the service at this time, at the initiative of the prime minister, sends a message to all those involved, a message that may jeopardize the optimal outcome of the investigation. This is a direct danger to the security of the state of Israel,” Bar said in his statement Thursday. diff --git a/data/wiki_car.txt b/data/wiki_car.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..46d11b5 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/wiki_car.txt @@ -0,0 +1,120 @@ +A car, or an automobile, is a motor vehicle with wheels. Most definitions of cars state that they run primarily on roads, seat one to eight people, have four wheels, and mainly transport people rather than cargo.[1][2] There are around one billion cars in use worldwide. + +The French inventor Nicolas-Joseph Cugnot built the first steam-powered road vehicle in 1769, while the Swiss inventor François Isaac de Rivaz designed and constructed the first internal combustion-powered automobile in 1808. The modern car—a practical, marketable automobile for everyday use—was invented in 1886, when the German inventor Carl Benz patented his Benz Patent-Motorwagen. Commercial cars became widely available during the 20th century. The 1901 Oldsmobile Curved Dash and the 1908 Ford Model T, both American cars, are widely considered the first mass-produced[3][4] and mass-affordable[5][6][7] cars, respectively. Cars were rapidly adopted in the US, where they replaced horse-drawn carriages.[8] In Europe and other parts of the world, demand for automobiles did not increase until after World War II.[9] In the 21st century, car usage is still increasing rapidly, especially in China, India, and other newly industrialised countries.[10][11] + +Cars have controls for driving, parking, passenger comfort, and a variety of lamps. Over the decades, additional features and controls have been added to vehicles, making them progressively more complex. These include rear-reversing cameras, air conditioning, navigation systems, and in-car entertainment. Most cars in use in the early 2020s are propelled by an internal combustion engine, fueled by the combustion of fossil fuels. Electric cars, which were invented early in the history of the car, became commercially available in the 2000s and are predicted to cost less to buy than petrol-driven cars before 2025.[12][13] The transition from fossil fuel-powered cars to electric cars features prominently in most climate change mitigation scenarios,[14] such as Project Drawdown's 100 actionable solutions for climate change.[15] + +There are costs and benefits to car use. The costs to the individual include acquiring the vehicle, interest payments (if the car is financed), repairs and maintenance, fuel, depreciation, driving time, parking fees, taxes, and insurance.[16] The costs to society include maintaining roads, land-use, road congestion, air pollution, noise pollution, public health, and disposing of the vehicle at the end of its life. Traffic collisions are the largest cause of injury-related deaths worldwide.[17] Personal benefits include on-demand transportation, mobility, independence, and convenience.[18] Societal benefits include economic benefits, such as job and wealth creation from the automotive industry, transportation provision, societal well-being from leisure and travel opportunities. People's ability to move flexibly from place to place has far-reaching implications for the nature of societies.[19] + +The English word car is believed to originate from Latin carrus/carrum "wheeled vehicle" or (via Old North French) Middle English carre "two-wheeled cart", both of which in turn derive from Gaulish karros "chariot".[20][21] It originally referred to any wheeled horse-drawn vehicle, such as a cart, carriage, or wagon.[22] The word also occurs in other Celtic languages.[23] + +"Motor car", attested from 1895, is the usual formal term in British English.[2] "Autocar", a variant likewise attested from 1895 and literally meaning "self-propelled car", is now considered archaic.[24] "Horseless carriage" is attested from 1895.[25] + +"Automobile", a classical compound derived from Ancient Greek autós (αὐτός) "self" and Latin mobilis "movable", entered English from French and was first adopted by the Automobile Club of Great Britain in 1897.[26] It fell out of favour in Britain and is now used chiefly in North America,[27] where the abbreviated form "auto" commonly appears as an adjective in compound formations like "auto industry" and "auto mechanic".[28][29] + +In 1649, Hans Hautsch of Nuremberg built a clockwork-driven carriage.[32][33] The first steam-powered vehicle was designed by Ferdinand Verbiest, a Flemish member of a Jesuit mission in China around 1672. It was a 65-centimetre-long (26 in) scale-model toy for the Kangxi Emperor that was unable to carry a driver or a passenger.[18][34][35] It is not known with certainty if Verbiest's model was successfully built or run.[35] + +Nicolas-Joseph Cugnot is widely credited with building the first full-scale, self-propelled mechanical vehicle in about 1769; he created a steam-powered tricycle.[36] He also constructed two steam tractors for the French Army, one of which is preserved in the French National Conservatory of Arts and Crafts.[36] His inventions were limited by problems with water supply and maintaining steam pressure.[36] In 1801, Richard Trevithick built and demonstrated his Puffing Devil road locomotive, believed by many to be the first demonstration of a steam-powered road vehicle. It was unable to maintain sufficient steam pressure for long periods and was of little practical use. + +The development of external combustion (steam) engines is detailed as part of the history of the car but often treated separately from the development of true cars. A variety of steam-powered road vehicles were used during the first part of the 19th century, including steam cars, steam buses, phaetons, and steam rollers. In the United Kingdom, sentiment against them led to the Locomotive Acts of 1865. + +In 1807, Nicéphore Niépce and his brother Claude created what was probably the world's first internal combustion engine (which they called a Pyréolophore), but installed it in a boat on the river Saone in France.[37] Coincidentally, in 1807, the Swiss inventor François Isaac de Rivaz designed his own "de Rivaz internal combustion engine", and used it to develop the world's first vehicle to be powered by such an engine. The Niépces' Pyréolophore was fuelled by a mixture of Lycopodium powder (dried spores of the Lycopodium plant), finely crushed coal dust and resin that were mixed with oil, whereas de Rivaz used a mixture of hydrogen and oxygen.[37] Neither design was successful, as was the case with others, such as Samuel Brown, Samuel Morey, and Etienne Lenoir,[38] who each built vehicles (usually adapted carriages or carts) powered by internal combustion engines.[39] + +In November 1881, French inventor Gustave Trouvé demonstrated a three-wheeled car powered by electricity at the International Exposition of Electricity.[40] Although several other German engineers (including Gottlieb Daimler, Wilhelm Maybach, and Siegfried Marcus) were working on cars at about the same time, the year 1886 is regarded as the birth year of the modern car—a practical, marketable automobile for everyday use—when the German Carl Benz patented his Benz Patent-Motorwagen; he is generally acknowledged as the inventor of the car.[39][41][42] + +In 1879, Benz was granted a patent for his first engine, which had been designed in 1878. Many of his other inventions made the use of the internal combustion engine feasible for powering a vehicle. His first Motorwagen was built in 1885 in Mannheim, Germany. He was awarded the patent for its invention as of his application on 29 January 1886 (under the auspices of his major company, Benz & Cie., which was founded in 1883). Benz began promotion of the vehicle on 3 July 1886, and about 25 Benz vehicles were sold between 1888 and 1893, when his first four-wheeler was introduced along with a cheaper model. They also were powered with four-stroke engines of his own design. Emile Roger of France, already producing Benz engines under license, now added the Benz car to his line of products. Because France was more open to the early cars, initially more were built and sold in France through Roger than Benz sold in Germany. In August 1888, Bertha Benz, the wife and business partner of Carl Benz, undertook the first road trip by car, to prove the road-worthiness of her husband's invention.[43] + +In 1896, Benz designed and patented the first internal-combustion flat engine, called boxermotor. During the last years of the 19th century, Benz was the largest car company in the world with 572 units produced in 1899 and, because of its size, Benz & Cie., became a joint-stock company. The first motor car in central Europe and one of the first factory-made cars in the world, was produced by Czech company Nesselsdorfer Wagenbau (later renamed to Tatra) in 1897, the Präsident automobil. + +Daimler and Maybach founded Daimler Motoren Gesellschaft (DMG) in Cannstatt in 1890, and sold their first car in 1892 under the brand name Daimler. It was a horse-drawn stagecoach built by another manufacturer, which they retrofitted with an engine of their design. By 1895, about 30 vehicles had been built by Daimler and Maybach, either at the Daimler works or in the Hotel Hermann, where they set up shop after disputes with their backers. Benz, Maybach, and the Daimler team seem to have been unaware of each other's early work. They never worked together; by the time of the merger of the two companies, Daimler and Maybach were no longer part of DMG. Daimler died in 1900 and later that year, Maybach designed an engine named Daimler-Mercedes that was placed in a specially ordered model built to specifications set by Emil Jellinek. This was a production of a small number of vehicles for Jellinek to race and market in his country. Two years later, in 1902, a new model DMG car was produced and the model was named Mercedes after the Maybach engine, which generated 35 hp. Maybach quit DMG shortly thereafter and opened a business of his own. Rights to the Daimler brand name were sold to other manufacturers. + +In 1890, Émile Levassor and Armand Peugeot of France began producing vehicles with Daimler engines, and so laid the foundation of the automotive industry in France. In 1891, Auguste Doriot and his Peugeot colleague Louis Rigoulot completed the longest trip by a petrol-driven vehicle when their self-designed and built Daimler powered Peugeot Type 3 completed 2,100 kilometres (1,300 mi) from Valentigney to Paris and Brest and back again. They were attached to the first Paris–Brest–Paris bicycle race, but finished six days after the winning cyclist, Charles Terront. + +The first design for an American car with a petrol internal combustion engine was made in 1877 by George Selden of Rochester, New York. Selden applied for a patent for a car in 1879, but the patent application expired because the vehicle was never built. After a delay of 16 years and a series of attachments to his application, on 5 November 1895, Selden was granted a US patent (U.S. patent 549,160) for a two-stroke car engine, which hindered, more than encouraged, development of cars in the United States. His patent was challenged by Henry Ford and others, and overturned in 1911. + +In 1893, the first running, petrol-driven American car was built and road-tested by the Duryea brothers of Springfield, Massachusetts. The first public run of the Duryea Motor Wagon took place on 21 September 1893, on Taylor Street in Metro Center Springfield.[44][45] Studebaker, subsidiary of a long-established wagon and coach manufacturer, started to build cars in 1897[46]: 66  and commenced sales of electric vehicles in 1902 and petrol vehicles in 1904.[47] + +In Britain, there had been several attempts to build steam cars with varying degrees of success, with Thomas Rickett even attempting a production run in 1860.[48] Santler from Malvern is recognised by the Veteran Car Club of Great Britain as having made the first petrol-driven car in the country in 1894,[49] followed by Frederick William Lanchester in 1895, but these were both one-offs.[49] The first production vehicles in Great Britain came from the Daimler Company, a company founded by Harry J. Lawson in 1896, after purchasing the right to use the name of the engines. Lawson's company made its first car in 1897, and they bore the name Daimler.[49] + +In 1892, German engineer Rudolf Diesel was granted a patent for a "New Rational Combustion Engine". In 1897, he built the first diesel engine.[39] Steam-, electric-, and petrol-driven vehicles competed for a few decades, with petrol internal combustion engines achieving dominance in the 1910s. Although various pistonless rotary engine designs have attempted to compete with the conventional piston and crankshaft design, only Mazda's version of the Wankel engine has had more than very limited success. All in all, it is estimated that over 100,000 patents created the modern automobile and motorcycle.[50] + +Large-scale, production-line manufacturing of affordable cars was started by Ransom Olds in 1901 at his Oldsmobile factory in Lansing, Michigan, and based upon stationary assembly line techniques pioneered by Marc Isambard Brunel at the Portsmouth Block Mills, England, in 1802. The assembly line style of mass production and interchangeable parts had been pioneered in the US by Thomas Blanchard in 1821, at the Springfield Armory in Springfield, Massachusetts.[51] This concept was greatly expanded by Henry Ford, beginning in 1913 with the world's first moving assembly line for cars at the Highland Park Ford Plant. + +As a result, Ford's cars came off the line in 15-minute intervals, much faster than previous methods, increasing productivity eightfold, while using less manpower (from 12.5 manhours to 1 hour 33 minutes).[52] It was so successful, paint became a bottleneck. Only Japan black would dry fast enough, forcing the company to drop the variety of colours available before 1913, until fast-drying Duco lacquer was developed in 1926. This is the source of Ford's apocryphal remark, "any color as long as it's black".[52] In 1914, an assembly line worker could buy a Model T with four months' pay.[52] + +Ford's complex safety procedures—especially assigning each worker to a specific location instead of allowing them to roam about—dramatically reduced the rate of injury.[53] The combination of high wages and high efficiency is called "Fordism" and was copied by most major industries. The efficiency gains from the assembly line also coincided with the economic rise of the US. The assembly line forced workers to work at a certain pace with very repetitive motions which led to more output per worker while other countries were using less productive methods. + +In the automotive industry, its success was dominating, and quickly spread worldwide seeing the founding of Ford France and Ford Britain in 1911, Ford Denmark 1923, Ford Germany 1925; in 1921, Citroën was the first native European manufacturer to adopt the production method. Soon, companies had to have assembly lines, or risk going bankrupt; by 1930, 250 companies which did not, had disappeared.[52] + +Development of automotive technology was rapid, due in part to the hundreds of small manufacturers competing to gain the world's attention. Key developments included electric ignition and the electric self-starter (both by Charles Kettering, for the Cadillac Motor Company in 1910–1911), independent suspension, and four-wheel brakes. + +Since the 1920s, nearly all cars have been mass-produced to meet market needs, so marketing plans often have heavily influenced car design. It was Alfred P. Sloan who established the idea of different makes of cars produced by one company, called the General Motors Companion Make Program, so that buyers could "move up" as their fortunes improved. + +Reflecting the rapid pace of change, makes shared parts with one another so larger production volume resulted in lower costs for each price range. For example, in the 1930s, LaSalles, sold by Cadillac, used cheaper mechanical parts made by Oldsmobile; in the 1950s, Chevrolet shared bonnet, doors, roof, and windows with Pontiac; by the 1990s, corporate powertrains and shared platforms (with interchangeable brakes, suspension, and other parts) were common. Even so, only major makers could afford high costs, and even companies with decades of production, such as Apperson, Cole, Dorris, Haynes, or Premier, could not manage: of some two hundred American car makers in existence in 1920, only 43 survived in 1930, and with the Great Depression, by 1940, only 17 of those were left.[52] + +In Europe, much the same would happen. Morris set up its production line at Cowley in 1924, and soon outsold Ford, while beginning in 1923 to follow Ford's practice of vertical integration, buying Hotchkiss' British subsidiary (engines), Wrigley (gearboxes), and Osberton (radiators), for instance, as well as competitors, such as Wolseley: in 1925, Morris had 41 per cent of total British car production. Most British small-car assemblers, from Abbey to Xtra, had gone under. Citroën did the same in France, coming to cars in 1919; between them and other cheap cars in reply such as Renault's 10CV and Peugeot's 5CV, they produced 550,000 cars in 1925, and Mors, Hurtu, and others could not compete.[52] Germany's first mass-manufactured car, the Opel 4PS Laubfrosch (Tree Frog), came off the line at Rüsselsheim in 1924, soon making Opel the top car builder in Germany, with 37.5 per cent of the market.[52] + +In Japan, car production was very limited before World War II. Only a handful of companies were producing vehicles in limited numbers, and these were small, three-wheeled for commercial uses, like Daihatsu, or were the result of partnering with European companies, like Isuzu building the Wolseley A-9 in 1922. Mitsubishi was also partnered with Fiat and built the Mitsubishi Model A based on a Fiat vehicle. Toyota, Nissan, Suzuki, Mazda, and Honda began as companies producing non-automotive products before the war, switching to car production during the 1950s. Kiichiro Toyoda's decision to take Toyoda Loom Works into automobile manufacturing would create what would eventually become Toyota Motor Corporation, the largest automobile manufacturer in the world. Subaru, meanwhile, was formed from a conglomerate of six companies who banded together as Fuji Heavy Industries, as a result of having been broken up under keiretsu legislation. + +Fossil fuels + +Most cars in use in the early 2020s run on petrol burnt in an internal combustion engine (ICE). Some cities ban older more polluting petrol-driven cars and some countries plan to ban sales in future. However, some environmental groups say this phase-out of fossil fuel vehicles must be brought forwards to limit climate change. Production of petrol-fuelled cars peaked in 2017.[55][56] + +Other hydrocarbon fossil fuels also burnt by deflagration (rather than detonation) in ICE cars include diesel, autogas, and CNG. Removal of fossil fuel subsidies,[57][58] concerns about oil dependence, tightening environmental laws and restrictions on greenhouse gas emissions are propelling work on alternative power systems for cars. This includes hybrid vehicles, plug-in electric vehicles and hydrogen vehicles. Out of all cars sold in 2021, nine per cent were electric, and by the end of that year there were more than 16 million electric cars on the world's roads.[59] Despite rapid growth, less than two per cent of cars on the world's roads were fully electric and plug-in hybrid cars by the end of 2021.[59] Cars for racing or speed records have sometimes employed jet or rocket engines, but these are impractical for common use. Oil consumption has increased rapidly in the 20th and 21st centuries because there are more cars; the 1980s oil glut even fuelled the sales of low-economy vehicles in OECD countries. The BRIC countries are adding to this consumption. +Batteries +Main article: Electric vehicle battery +See also: Electric car § Batteries, and Automotive battery + +In almost all hybrid (even mild hybrid) and pure electric cars regenerative braking recovers and returns to a battery some energy which would otherwise be wasted by friction brakes getting hot.[60] Although all cars must have friction brakes (front disc brakes and either disc or drum rear brakes[61]) for emergency stops, regenerative braking improves efficiency, particularly in city driving.[62] + +Cars are equipped with controls used for driving, passenger comfort, and safety, normally operated by a combination of the use of feet and hands, and occasionally by voice on 21st-century cars. These controls include a steering wheel, pedals for operating the brakes and controlling the car's speed (and, in a manual transmission car, a clutch pedal), a shift lever or stick for changing gears, and a number of buttons and dials for turning on lights, ventilation, and other functions. Modern cars' controls are now standardised, such as the location for the accelerator and brake, but this was not always the case. Controls are evolving in response to new technologies, for example, the electric car and the integration of mobile communications. + +Some of the original controls are no longer required. For example, all cars once had controls for the choke valve, clutch, ignition timing, and a crank instead of an electric starter. However, new controls have also been added to vehicles, making them more complex. These include air conditioning, navigation systems, and in-car entertainment. Another trend is the replacement of physical knobs and switches by secondary controls with touchscreen controls such as BMW's iDrive and Ford's MyFord Touch. Another change is that while early cars' pedals were physically linked to the brake mechanism and throttle, in the early 2020s, cars have increasingly replaced these physical linkages with electronic controls. + +Cars are typically equipped with interior lighting which can be toggled manually or be set to light up automatically with doors open, an entertainment system which originated from car radios, sideways windows which can be lowered or raised electrically (manually on earlier cars), and one or multiple auxiliary power outlets for supplying portable appliances such as mobile phones, portable fridges, power inverters, and electrical air pumps from the on-board electrical system.[63][64][a] More costly upper-class and luxury cars are equipped with features earlier such as massage seats and collision avoidance systems.[65][66] + +Cars are typically fitted with multiple types of lights. These include headlights, which are used to illuminate the way ahead and make the car visible to other users, so that the vehicle can be used at night; in some jurisdictions, daytime running lights; red brake lights to indicate when the brakes are applied; amber turn signal lights to indicate the turn intentions of the driver; white-coloured reverse lights to illuminate the area behind the car (and indicate that the driver will be or is reversing); and on some vehicles, additional lights (e.g., side marker lights) to increase the visibility of the car. Interior lights on the ceiling of the car are usually fitted for the driver and passengers. Some vehicles also have a boot light and, more rarely, an engine compartment light. + +During the late 20th and early 21st century, cars increased in weight due to batteries,[68] modern steel safety cages, anti-lock brakes, airbags, and "more-powerful—if more efficient—engines"[69] and, as of 2019, typically weigh between 1 and 3 tonnes (1.1 and 3.3 short tons; 0.98 and 2.95 long tons).[70] Heavier cars are safer for the driver from a crash perspective, but more dangerous for other vehicles and road users.[69] The weight of a car influences fuel consumption and performance, with more weight resulting in increased fuel consumption and decreased performance. The Wuling Hongguang Mini EV, a typical city car, weighs about 700 kilograms (1,500 lb). Heavier cars include SUVs and extended-length SUVs like the Suburban. Cars have also become wider.[71] + +Some places tax heavier cars more:[72] as well as improving pedestrian safety this can encourage manufacturers to use materials such as recycled aluminium instead of steel.[73] It has been suggested that one benefit of subsidising charging infrastructure is that cars can use lighter batteries.[74] + +Most cars are designed to carry multiple occupants, often with four or five seats. Cars with five seats typically seat two passengers in the front and three in the rear. Full-size cars and large sport utility vehicles can often carry six, seven, or more occupants depending on the arrangement of the seats. On the other hand, sports cars are most often designed with only two seats. Utility vehicles like pickup trucks, combine seating with extra cargo or utility functionality. The differing needs for passenger capacity and their luggage or cargo space has resulted in the availability of a large variety of body styles to meet individual consumer requirements that include, among others, the sedan/saloon, hatchback, station wagon/estate, coupe, and minivan. + +Traffic collisions are the largest cause of injury-related deaths worldwide.[17] Mary Ward became one of the first documented car fatalities in 1869 in Parsonstown, Ireland,[75] and Henry Bliss one of the US's first pedestrian car casualties in 1899 in New York City.[76] There are now standard tests for safety in new cars, such as the Euro and US NCAP tests,[77] and insurance-industry-backed tests by the Insurance Institute for Highway Safety (IIHS).[78] However, not all such tests consider the safety of people outside the car, such as drivers of other cars, pedestrians and cyclists.[79] + +The costs of car usage, which may include the cost of: acquiring the vehicle, repairs and auto maintenance, fuel, depreciation, driving time, parking fees, taxes, and insurance,[16] are weighed against the cost of the alternatives, and the value of the benefits—perceived and real—of vehicle usage. The benefits may include on-demand transportation, mobility, independence, and convenience,[18] and emergency power.[81] During the 1920s, cars had another benefit: "[c]ouples finally had a way to head off on unchaperoned dates, plus they had a private space to snuggle up close at the end of the night."[82] + +Similarly the costs to society of car use may include; maintaining roads, land use, air pollution, noise pollution, road congestion, public health, health care, and of disposing of the vehicle at the end of its life; and can be balanced against the value of the benefits to society that car use generates. Societal benefits may include: economy benefits, such as job and wealth creation, of car production and maintenance, transportation provision, society wellbeing derived from leisure and travel opportunities, and revenue generation from the tax opportunities. The ability of humans to move flexibly from place to place has far-reaching implications for the nature of societies.[19] + +Car production and use has a large number of environmental impacts: it causes local air pollution plastic pollution and contributes to greenhouse gas emissions and climate change.[85] Cars and vans caused 10% of energy-related carbon dioxide emissions in 2022.[86] As of 2023, electric cars produce about half the emissions over their lifetime as diesel and petrol cars. This is set to improve as countries produce more of their electricity from low-carbon sources.[87] Cars consume almost a quarter of world oil production as of 2019.[55] Cities planned around cars are often less dense, which leads to further emissions, as they are less walkable for instance.[85] A growing demand for large SUVs is driving up emissions from cars.[88] + +Cars are a major cause of air pollution,[89] which stems from exhaust gas in diesel and petrol cars and from dust from brakes, tyres, and road wear. Electric cars do not produce tailpipe emissions, but are generally heavier and therefore produce slightly more particulate matter.[90] Heavy metals and microplastics (from tyres) are also released into the environment, during production, use and at the end of life. Mining related to car manufacturing and oil spills both cause water pollution.[85] + +Animals and plants are often negatively affected by cars via habitat destruction and fragmentation from the road network and pollution. Animals are also killed every year on roads by cars, referred to as roadkill.[85] More recent road developments are including significant environmental mitigation in their designs, such as green bridges (designed to allow wildlife crossings) and creating wildlife corridors. + +Governments use fiscal policies, such as road tax, to discourage the purchase and use of more polluting cars;[91] Vehicle emission standards ban the sale of new highly pollution cars.[92] Many countries plan to stop selling fossil cars altogether between 2025 and 2050.[93] Various cities have implemented low-emission zones, banning old fossil fuel and Amsterdam is planning to ban fossil fuel cars completely.[94][95] Some cities make it easier for people to choose other forms of transport, such as cycling.[94] Many Chinese cities limit licensing of fossil fuel cars,[96] + +Mass production of personal motor vehicles in the United States and other developed countries with extensive territories such as Australia, Argentina, and France vastly increased individual and group mobility and greatly increased and expanded economic development in urban, suburban, exurban and rural areas.[citation needed] Growth in the popularity of cars and commuting has led to traffic congestion.[97] Moscow, Istanbul, Bogotá, Mexico City and São Paulo were the world's most congested cities in 2018 according to INRIX, a data analytics company.[98] +Access to cars + +In the United States, the transport divide and car dependency resulting from domination of car-based transport systems presents barriers to employment in low-income neighbourhoods,[99] with many low-income individuals and families forced to run cars they cannot afford in order to maintain their income.[100] Dependency on automobiles by African Americans may result in exposure to the hazards of driving while black and other types of racial discrimination related to buying, financing and insuring them.[101] +Health impact +Further information: Motor vehicle pollution and pregnancy + +Air pollution from cars increases the risk of lung cancer and heart disease. It can also harm pregnancies: more children are born too early or with lower birth weight.[85] Children are extra vulnerable to air pollution, as their bodies are still developing and air pollution in children is linked to the development of asthma, childhood cancer, and neurocognitive issues such as autism.[102][85] The growth in popularity of the car allowed cities to sprawl, therefore encouraging more travel by car, resulting in inactivity and obesity, which in turn can lead to increased risk of a variety of diseases.[103] When places are designed around cars, children have fewer opportunities to go places by themselves, and lose opportunities to become more independent.[104][85] +Emerging car technologies + +Although intensive development of conventional battery electric vehicles is continuing into the 2020s,[105] other car propulsion technologies that are under development include wireless charging,[106] hydrogen cars,[107][108] and hydrogen/electric hybrids.[109] Research into alternative forms of power includes using ammonia instead of hydrogen in fuel cells.[110] + +New materials which may replace steel car bodies include aluminium,[111] fiberglass, carbon fiber, biocomposites, and carbon nanotubes.[112] Telematics technology is allowing more and more people to share cars, on a pay-as-you-go basis, through car share and carpool schemes. Communication is also evolving due to connected car systems.[113] Open-source cars are not widespread.[114] + +Fully autonomous vehicles, also known as driverless cars, already exist as robotaxis[115][116] but have a long way to go before they are in general use.[117] + +Car-share arrangements and carpooling are also increasingly popular, in the US and Europe.[118] For example, in the US, some car-sharing services have experienced double-digit growth in revenue and membership growth between 2006 and 2007. Services like car sharing offer residents to "share" a vehicle rather than own a car in already congested neighbourhoods.[119] + +The automotive industry designs, develops, manufactures, markets, and sells the world's motor vehicles, more than three-quarters of which are cars. In 2020, there were 56 million cars manufactured worldwide,[120] down from 67 million the previous year.[121] The automotive industry in China produces by far the most (20 million in 2020), followed by Japan (seven million), then Germany, South Korea and India.[122] The largest market is China, followed by the US. + +Around the world, there are about a billion cars on the road;[123] they burn over a trillion litres (0.26×1012 US gal; 0.22×1012 imp gal) of petrol and diesel fuel yearly, consuming about 50 exajoules (14,000 TWh) of energy.[124] The numbers of cars are increasing rapidly in China and India.[125] In the opinion of some, urban transport systems based around the car have proved unsustainable, consuming excessive energy, affecting the health of populations, and delivering a declining level of service despite increasing investment. Many of these negative effects fall disproportionately on those social groups who are also least likely to own and drive cars.[126][127] The sustainable transport movement focuses on solutions to these problems. The car industry is also facing increasing competition from the public transport sector, as some people re-evaluate their private vehicle usage. In July 2021, the European Commission introduced the "Fit for 55" legislation package, outlining crucial directives for the automotive sector's future.[128][129] According to this package, by 2035, all newly sold cars in the European market must be Zero-emissions vehicles.[130][131][132] + +Established alternatives for some aspects of car use include public transport such as busses, trolleybusses, trains, subways, tramways, light rail, cycling, and walking. Bicycle sharing systems have been established in China and many European cities, including Copenhagen and Amsterdam. Similar programmes have been developed in large US cities.[133][134] Additional individual modes of transport, such as personal rapid transit could serve as an alternative to cars if they prove to be socially accepted.[135] A study which checked the costs and the benefits of introducing Low Traffic Neighbourhood in London found the benefits overpass the costs approximately by 100 times in the first 20 years and the difference is growing over time.[136] \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/wiki_dog.txt b/data/wiki_dog.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..0637b0e --- /dev/null +++ b/data/wiki_dog.txt @@ -0,0 +1,22 @@ +Dogs are mammals, usually to be kept as pets, for work on farms or for the police. Some dogs are trained to be rescue dogs and join teams such as mountain rescue.[4] + +They have been bred by humans from ancestral wolves. They were the first animal to live with humans.[5] + +There was a lot of different types among wolves in the Late Pleistocene.[1] The dingo is also a dog, but many dingos have become wild animals again and live in the wild, away from humans (parts of Australia).[6] + +Today, some dogs are used as pets, and others are used to help humans do their work. They are popular pets because they are usually playful, friendly, loyal, and listen to humans. Thirty million dogs in the United States have been registered as pets.[7] Dogs eat both meat and vegetables. Often mixed together and sold in stores as dog food.[8] Dogs often have jobs including police dogs, army dogs, assistance dogs, fire dogs, messenger dogs, hunting dogs, herding dogs, or rescue dogs. They are sometimes called "canines" from the Latin word for dog - canis. Wolves are also canines. A baby dog is called a pup or puppy. A dog is called a puppy until it is about one year old.[9] + +Dogs are sometimes known as "human's best friend" because they are kept as pets, are usually loyal, and like being around humans. Dogs like to be petted, but only when they can first see the petter's hand before petting. One should never pet a dog from behind.[10] + +August 26 is National Dog Day worldwide.[11] While March 26 is National Puppy Day in the United States.[12] +Appearance and behaviour + +Dogs can smell and hear better than humans but cannot see well in color because they are color blind. Due to the structure of the eye, dogs can see better in low light than humans. They also have a larger field of vision.[13] + +Like wolves, wild dogs travel in groups called packs. Packs of dogs are listed by rank, and dogs with low rank will submit to other dogs with a higher rank. The highest ranked dog is called the alpha male. A dog in a group helps and cares for others. Pet dogs often view their owner as the alpha male.[14] + +Different dog breeds have different lifespans. In general, smaller dogs live longer than bigger ones.[15] The size and the breed of the dog change how long the dog lives on average. Breeds such as the Dachshund usually live for fifteen years, Chihuahuas can reach age of twenty. On the other hand, the Great Dane has an average lifespan of six to eight years; some Great Danes have lived for as long as ten years. An American Bulldog lives for around 15 years. Bigger dogs will have smaller lives than smaller dogs because of the pressure on its heart to move around.[16] + +Dogs are often called "man's best friend" because they fit in with human life. Dogs can serve people in many ways. For example, there are guard dogs, hunting dogs, herding dogs, guide dogs for blind people, and police dogs. There are also dogs that are trained to smell for diseases in the human body or to find bombs or illegal drugs. These dogs sometimes help police in airports or other areas. Sniffer dogs (usually beagles) are sometimes trained for this job. Dogs have even been sent by Russians into outer space, a few years before any human being. The first dog sent up was named Laika, but she died within a few hours.[17] + +There is much more variety in dogs than in cats. That is mainly because of the way humans have selected and bred dogs for specific jobs and functions. It may also have something to do with the fact that dogs are pack animals, whereas cats are not.[18] \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/scrape.sh b/scrape.sh deleted file mode 100755 index aab421c..0000000 --- a/scrape.sh +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9 +0,0 @@ -#!/bin/bash - -FILE_PATH="./words.txt" - -while read -r line; do - for (( i=0; i<${#line}; i++ )); do - printf "%d-" "'${line:$i:1}" - done -done < "$FILE_PATH" \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/transform.sh b/transform.sh new file mode 100755 index 0000000..06c2168 --- /dev/null +++ b/transform.sh @@ -0,0 +1,35 @@ +#!/bin/bash + +FILE_PATH="./words.txt" + +vowels="aeiouy" + +while read -r line; do + prev="" + prevprev="" + + for (( i=0; i<${#line}; i++ )); do + curr="${line:$i:1}" + + curr_lower=$(echo "$curr" | tr 'A-Z' 'a-z') + prev_lower=$(echo "$prev" | tr 'A-Z' 'a-z') + prevprev_lower=$(echo "$prevprev" | tr 'A-Z' 'a-z') + + curr_val=$(printf "%d" "'$curr_lower") + prev_val=0 + prevprev_val=0 + + if [ -n "$prev_lower" ]; then + prev_val=$(printf "%d" "'$prev_lower") + fi + if [ -n "$prevprev_lower" ]; then + prevprev_val=$(printf "%d" "'$prevprev_lower") + fi + + printf "%d-%d-%d " "$prevprev_val" "$prev_val" "$curr_val" + + prevprev="$prev" + prev="$curr" + done + echo +done < "$FILE_PATH" \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/words.sh b/words.sh new file mode 100755 index 0000000..619d119 --- /dev/null +++ b/words.sh @@ -0,0 +1,4 @@ +#!/bin/bash + + +grep -o "[[:alpha:]]\{1,\}" "$1" | tr '[:upper:]' '[:lower:]' diff --git a/words.txt b/words.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 4818171..0000000 --- a/words.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,996 +0,0 @@ -as -I -his -that -he -was -for -on -are -with -they -be -at -one -have -this -from -by -hot -word -but -what -some -is -it -you -or -had -the -of -to -and -a -in -we -can -out -other -were -which -do -their -time -if -will -how -said -an -each -tell -does -set -three -want -air -well -also -play -small -end -put -home -read -hand -port -large -spell -add 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-settle -speak -weight -general -ice -matter -circle -pair -include -divide -syllable -felt -grand -ball -yet -wave -drop -heart -am -present -heavy -dance -engine -position -arm -wide -sail -material -fraction -forest -sit -race -window -store -summer -train -sleep -prove -lone -leg -exercise -wall -catch -mount -wish -sky -board -joy -winter -sat -written -wild -instrument -kept -glass -grass -cow -job -edge -sign -visit -past -soft -fun -bright -gas -weather -month -million -bear -finish -happy -hope -flower -clothe -strange -gone -trade -melody -trip -office -receive -row -mouth -exact -symbol -die -least -trouble -shout -except -wrote -seed -tone -join -suggest -clean -break -lady -yard -rise -bad -blow -oil -blood -touch -grew -cent -mix -team -wire -cost -lost -brown -wear -garden -equal -sent -choose -fell -fit -flow -fair -bank -collect -save -control -decimal -ear -else -quite -broke -case -middle -kill -son -lake -moment -scale -loud -spring -observe -child -straight -consonant -nation -dictionary -milk -speed -method -organ -pay -age -section -dress -cloud -surprise -quiet -stone -tiny -climb -cool -design -poor -lot -experiment -bottom -key -iron -single -stick -flat -twenty -skin -smile -crease -hole -jump -baby -eight -village -meet -root -buy -raise -solve -metal -whether -push -seven -paragraph -third -shall -held -hair -describe -cook -floor -either -result -burn -hill -safe -cat -century -consider -type -law -bit -coast -copy -phrase -silent -tall -sand -soil -roll -temperature -finger -industry -value -fight -lie -beat -excite -natural -view -sense -capital -chair -danger -fruit -rich -thick -soldier -process -operate -practice -separate -difficult -doctor -please -protect -noon -crop -modern -element -hit -student -corner -party -supply -whose -locate -ring -character -insect -caught -period -indicate -radio -spoke -atom -human -history -effect -electric -expect -bone -rail -imagine -provide -agree -thus -gentle -woman -captain -guess 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-evening -condition -feed -tool -total -basic -smell -valley -nor -double -seat -continue -block -chart -hat -sell -success -company -subtract -event -particular -deal -swim -term -opposite -wife -shoe -shoulder -spread -arrange -camp -invent -cotton -born -determine -quart -nine -truck -noise -level -chance -gather -shop -stretch -throw -shine -property -column -molecule -select -wrong -gray -repeat -require -broad -prepare -salt -nose -plural -anger -claim -continent \ No newline at end of file